Spolia Zeylanica Vol.10

iOLIi ZEYLAMCi.

ISSITED FBOM

TM COLOMBO MUSEUM

CEYLON.

VOLUME X.

4

COLOMBO:

H. B. COTTLBi, XCTJNG GOVI^MENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

im

CONTENTS OF VOLUME X.

Pabt XXXVI,— Decembbb, 1914.

PAGE

1. Wait,W.B.— ... . ♦

The Distribution of Birds in Ceylon and its Belation to recent
Geologioal Changes in the Island . . : . 1

2. Wayland, E. J.— *

IHie Interpretation of Nature and the Nature of Interpretation ^ . 3^

3. Hartley, C.—

On the Ooourrence of Pigmy Implements in Ceylon

4. Review

5. Notes. —

1. Miorodon, sp. A. Rutherford

2. * Short Notes. A. Rutherford

^ 3. Insect Food Plants. F. M. Maokwood

4. 'Ffctensions of the Range of the Common Leech. T. Fetsh 79

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society . . 80

54

68

a

79

Paet XXXVII.— October, "1915.

1. Clark, Dr. H. L.—

The Eobinoderms of Ceylon other than Holotbariaas . . 83

2. Rutherford, A. —

* Notes on Ceylon Cocoids . . . . 103

3. Henry, G. M.—

Note on two Aberrations of Ceylon Butterflies . . 117

4. Lewis, F. —

Notes on Animal and Plant Life in the Vedda Country . . 119

5. Wayland, E.

Notes oonoeming the Ooourrenoe of Small Desert Tracts in the
North-West of Ceylon ^ ..166

6. Notes.— ‘ .

1. Note on Halodeims atra. Dr. J* Pearson . 176

2. Gaunibali^ in Pulchriphyllium orurifoHum. G. M> Henry 176

3. How Lisards Bathe. G. M. Henry . . . . 177

4. Do Bat-snakes Strilm. C. Drieberg • • ^ 17'

7. Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society »» 178

fsB* XXXVin.-NovBMBBB, 1916.

b

1. Walt,W.E.—

Notes on Ceylon Rails, Waden, Gulls. and Tems

Wayjin4i B-
I JE^uastZsylanious

179

( iv )

3. Notes.—

1. hodosa tree d^oliated by C^texpiUsTB of Catopsilia

pomona, Fabr. C. C. Solomons . . .. 28^

2 . Trees defoliated by Caterpillar of Catopsilia pomona, Fabr.

a M. Henry .. .. 281

3. Flight, of BranaOallopasa. C. C. Solomons 282

4. Naoadul^ dana, De Nioeville, W. Ormiston . . 282

5. Toriiw ifettmdaliB. W. Ormiston * . . . . 283

f. Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society > ■ 284

Past XXXE^.—Ootobbr, 1917. .

1. Wait» W.E.—

Notes on Ceylon Water Birds. . . . 287

2. Wait,W.E,—

Rough Draft of Ceylon Pigeons and Game Birds . . 347

3. Records of Ceylon Species . . . ■ . . 380

4. NotjM- —

1. • Note on the emergence of Winged Termites. T. Fetch . . 398

2. Note on the Breeding Habits of tiie Did'ho-do-it (Saroo* o

, grsmmus indious). C. T. Symons . . • . . 397

3. Wilson’s Stormy Petrel (0. ooeanicus). W. A. Cave ' . . 398

5. Ptooeedings of the Ceylon Natural Btistory Society

390

SPOLIA ZETLANICA.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON AND ITS
RELATION TO RECENT GEOLOGICAL CHANGES
IN THE ISLAND.

By W. E. Wait, C.C.S.

T he fauna of an island can never fail to be of interest.

Owing to its isolation there are usually to be found within
its limits a greater number of peculiar species and genera than
can be expected from a continental area of the 31 me extent.
If the island has been separated from adjacent lands for only
a short* geological peiiod, the insularity of its fauna is not
well developed ; but the longer the peiiod of separation, the
more marked become the differences.

As a consequence, the study of an insular fauna will throw
considerable light upon its geological history, corroborating
the geological evidence, or supplementing gaps in the geological
record. Take, for instance, the British Islands. We know
that at a quite recent geological period — that of the great
Ice Age — the whole of the north of Great Britain was covered
by an enormous sheet of glacier ice, and that even the south
of England was too cold to support anything but an arctic
fauna. When the ice receded and the temperature grew
warmer, the present temperate fauna gradually came over
irom the ( .'ontinent. Tq allow for the influx of mammals there
must have been a laud conueefiou, not only between England
and the Continent, but behveen England and Ireland.

Now, a fair numbeii of aium:ils which came over into England
failed to reach Ireland, so it is evident that Ireland became
an island after the Ice Age, but before Great Britain became
separated from the Continent.

This comparative study of the distribution of animals is" of
the greatest importance in working out the geological history
of Ceylon, as our geological record is so imperfect.

The rocks of which the Island is composed belong to the
oldest geological , period, and it is fairly certain, from the
1 < 3 ( 7)14

2

SPOLU ZEYLANICA,

absence of any large accumulations of sedimentary rocks,
that throughout the manifold variations of the earth’s surface
during the changing geological periods the main part of Ceylon
was never submerged for any length of time. As it is the
animal and vegetable fossils of the sedimentary rocks which
give us the information of the age of the strata, our information
regarding Ceylon is almost a blank. The only strata in the
Island which, to my knowledge, contain fossils are recent
shell beds on the north, north-west, and south-east coasts,
and certain river gravels here and there through the Island,

Apart from there being so few rocks which can give us fossils,
the sjudy of geology in Ceylon is rendered difficult by the fact
that ip most places the strata are so covered with jungle under-
‘growth and topsoil that their outcrops are hidden, and one
cannot get at them to study them. The present Minefalogical
Survey is largely for economic purposes, and is concerned more
with petrography, or the composition of the rocks, than with
the physical geology of the Island as a whole.

Consequently, in order to throw light on the recent geological
history of Ceylon, we are thrown back mainly upon the study
of its fauna and flora, and upon the relations they bear to
those of the adjacent mainland.

Now, there is no doubt from the close connection between
our fauna and that of Southern India that Ceylon is a mere
appanage of that land, and has not been separated from it for
any tremendous length of time.

Wallace, who was one of the great pioneers in the science of
zoo-geography, in his ” Geographical Distribution of Animals,” •
published in 1876, divided the world into six main zoological
regions. The Palaearctic Region roughly comprised Europe,
Africa north of the Sahara, and Asia north of the Himalayas.
The Ethiopian Region took in the rest of Africa. The Oriental
Region contained India, Further India, Southern China, and
the islands of the Malay Archipelago, down to the famous
“Wallace’s Line,” which separates Bali from Lombok and
Borneo from 'Celebes. The islands beyond Wallace’s line,
together with Australasia, formed the Australian Region ; while
North and South America were divided into the Nearctio and
Neotropical Regions,

DiSTRIBCrTION OF BIEtlS IN CEYLON.

3

Wallace was so struck with the peculiarities shown in the
fauna of Southern India and Ceylon that he made them into
one of the four sub-regions of the Oriental Region ; the others
being the Indian — which took in the rest of India ; the Indo-
Chinese, comprising Burma, Siam, and South China ; and the
Indo-Malayan, which included the Malay Peninsula, the
Philippines, and the Oriental portion of the Archipelago.

More recent researches have extended the range of many
of the animals supposed by Wallace to be peculiar to the
Ceylonese sub-region and have modified Wallace’s grouping.

So far as India is concerned, a full summary of our know-
ledge of the subject wiU be found in a paper read in 1900 l^fore
the Royal Society by Dr. Blanford, on the Distribution of
Vertebrate Animals in India, Ceylon, and Burma.”*

As Dt. Blanford is one of the foremost Indian Geologists, the
author of the volume on Mammals in ‘‘ The Fauna of British
India,” part author of the four volumes on Birds, and editor
of the whole series relating to Vertebrates, one could scarcely
find an authority more competent to deal with the subject.

In this paper Dr. Blanford divides the Indian Empire into
the following five primary geographical divisions : —

A. — The Indo-Gangetic Plain.

B. — The Indian Peninsula,

C. — Ceylon.

D. — The Himalayas.

E. — Assam and Burma.

These five regions are again subdivided into nineteen
zoo-geographical tracts.

The Indian Peninsula splits up into —

No. 4. — ^The Cential Indian or Raj pu tana tract.

No, 5. — ^The Deccan tract.

No. 6. — ^The Behar-Orissa tract.

No. 7. — The Carnatic or Madras tract, which includes that
part of the peninsula south of the liver Kistna and east of
the Western 'Ghauts, thus comprising the Carndtic and Mysore.
This tract is fairly dry, the average rainfall being 35 inches.

* **Phil, Transacfriohi? of the Royal Society,” Series B., Vol. CXCIV.,
1901, pp. 336-436.-

4

SPOLU ZJiYLANICA.

No. 8. — The Malabar tract comprises the Western Ghauts
and the western coast lands from a little way north of
Bombay down to Cape Comorin , The average rainfall varies
from 74 inches at Bombay to 261 at Mahableswar.

Ceylon is divided into two ; —

No. 9. — The Northern Ceylon tract, comprising north and
east Ceylon and that part of the south of the Island east of
Tangalla. The rest of the Island is classed as No. 10, the
Southern Hill tract.

Of the Northern tract, he remarks ; “ This is, in fact, a part
of the Carnatic ^vith a higher rainfall and with much more
forest ! The rainfall varies from 35 inches at Mannar to 61 at
Trinoomalee.'’

Of the Southern tract, he says : South-western Ceylon, to
which, as Legge* has shown, the peculiar fauna of th^ Island
is largely restricted, must be regarded as part of the Malabar
Coast.”

The difference between the fauna of these divisions and sub-
divisions is more marked in some cases than in otliei's ; that is
to say, the divisions are of varying zoological importance.

As Blanford says, the Indo-Gangetic plain forms a geo-
logical boundary of the highest importance, f Many geologists
believed that this great plain was until quite recent times
covered oy part of a large sea, which cut off South India from
the country north of the Himalayas, as the Mediterranean now
cuts off North Africa from Europe ; and thah in those days
the Himalayas were represented by a chain of islands of quite
moderate altitude. ’ ’ *

This was Wallace’s opinion, but Blanford states that there
is no geological evidence to show that this former sea ever
extended eastwards of Delhi. J

Again, the place occupied by Ceylon as a primary division
is purely local, and not of great account zoologically, as will
be, seen from the remarks introducing the subdivision into

• Legge : “ History of Birds of Coylon,” Introduction, p. xvii., and
map.

t Blanford, loc. cit., p, 343.

X “ Manual of Geology of India,” Introduction, p. lx., aild also
p. 393.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

5

tracts. Northern Oylon throws in its lot with the Carnatic ;
and South-western Ceylon, though not so closely, with the
Malabar tract.

If we look at the five tracts of the Indian Peninsula, the
difference between the fauna of the first four is mostly specific
and not generic, but the fauna of the Malabar tract differs
widely from that of the adjoining areas.*

It was these differences that led Wallace to make Ceylon
and South India into a separate sub-region. They are largely
due to the presence of certain isolated species and genera
which show connections with such widely separated areas as
the Himalayas, Africa, Malaya, and even Australia. ,

The presence of these elements in the fauna of Ceylon is
described by Dr. Willey in a paper in the first number of
Spolia ^eylanica,-\ and tlieir bearing on the past history of
Ceylon is shown by Wallace in his work, to which I have
already referred.!

As regards the Australian element, it is practically confined
to the earthworms, an order low down in the organic scale.
Such lowly organisms change slowly, and their presence may
be accounted for by a land connection far back in the geologic
ages, when a continent stretched from Asia to Australia. The
African or Madagascan and the Malay elements, many
geologists hold, may be explained by postulating the existence
of a great continent, which in tertiary times stretched from
South India aj^d Ceylon to Madagascar on the one hand and
to Malaya on the other. It is quite probable, however, that
our connection with Malaya is rather later than that with
Madagascar.§ These peculiar elements are shared in a
varying degree by Ceylon with the Malabar tract, and I have
dealt with them no\^ as they belong to a period when Ceylon
still formed part of the South Indian Continent and had not
yet become an Island.

As I believe that an examination of the distribution of the
Himalayan, Malabar, and Carnatic elements among our birds

• Blanford: “ Phil. Transactions,” &c., p. 392.

t WLUey ; “ Constitution of the Fauna of Ceylon,” Sp^lia Zoylanica
Vol. I., Part I., p. 1.

t “ Geographical Distribution of Animab ” Vol. I., p. 328.

§ Wallace, ioc. ci<., p. 361.

SPOLIA ZBYLANIOA.

will throw some light on the geological changes which hare
separated Ceylon from South India, I will leave all discussion
as to their significance until I have summarized that distri-
bution.

In the course of his paper already alluded to, Dr, Blanford
has given a complete tabulation of all the genera of vertebrate
animals found in the nineteen tracts of the Indian Empire,
and the differences and affinities shown in these tables are
the bases on which he has founded his conclusions. He has
stopped short at generic and not gone into the further detail
of specific differences, partly because the work would have
beei^too enormous, and partly because differences in species are
not ijo sure a guide as differences in genera.

He has also attached far mere weight to the distribution of
mammals than to that of other vertebrates, because the means
of dispersal in the case of mammals is more limited than in
other orders. They cannot fly over arms of the sea, nor can
they cross mountain ranges as easily as birds.

However, as I am not competent to deal with any vertebrates
but birds, as my investigations cover a more limited area,
and as the differences between the birds of Ceylon and those
of the adjoining tracts are largely confined to differences
merely of species and not of genera, I must go into greater but
less sure detail, and take as my unit the species.

First of all it is necessary to examine the division of Ceylon
into zoo -geographical districts.

Blanford divides the Island into two tracts as described
above, but for a more detailed examination pne cannot do
better than follow the divisions given by Captain Legge in his
Introduction to the “ Birds Ceylon.” He divides the
Island into four districts : the dry forest areas of the north
and south-east ; the arid maritime belt of the north-west coast,
with which he groups the similar belt on the south-east ; the
damp western forest region ; and the hill zone of the Kandyan
districts.

The first two make up Blanford’s Carnatic tract of Ceylon,
aaid the last two his Malabar tract.

Now, it is true that the south-east “ arid maritime bplt ” is
exactly suited to the dry -country birds which inhabit the

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS m CEYLON.

7

north-west belt, but in the former area there are some notable
omissions, to which I shall call attention later on ; while if we
examine the large portion of the Island which is classed as the
dry forest area, we shall find the Carnatic forms gradually
diminishing as we go from north to south, while the Malabar
and peculiar species diminish as the country spreads away
from the Kandyan frontier.

I wish at the outset of my summary to state that in it I
have confined myself mainly to birds of weak powers of flight
and of limited range. My object is to show the affinities and
differences between our birds and those of Malabar and the
Carnatic, and in some cases with those of the Himalayas.

Migrant birds and those which have a wide Indian r^ge
will not receive notice where they do not afford evidence of
peculiar ^distribution .

As regards the distribution in Ceylon of the various species,
my information rests upon Legge's “ Birds of Ceylon ” and
my own observations. As regards India, it is taken from the
tabulation in Dr. Blanford’s paper and the ranges given in
the volumes on “ Birds ” in the “ Fauna of British India.’’

As I cannot pretend to complete knowledge even in Ceylon,
it is quite probable that there are many more inaccuracies in
the Indian distribution, where my knowledge is solely depend-
ent upon books, in which the information regarding the range
of each species is more general than detailed.

Beginning with the Passerine birds, our two species of Crow
are found all over India, but in Ceylon the Gray-necked Crow —
Crone splendens — so common in Colombo, is worth notice, as it
is probably a new comer. It is found only round the coast,
and whereas in Legge’s time it was not found in the south of
the Island between Kalutara and Arugam Bay, it has now,
to my knowledge, spread from Kalutara southwards suxd
eastwards as far as Hambantota, and possibly all round
the Island.

The Ceylon Magpie, found in the hills — Cissa omata —
belongs to a Himalayan genus, otherwise not found between
the headquai'ters of the genus and our Island. This species is
peculiar to Ceylon, where it is confined to the higher elevations
of the hill-country.

8

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Crateropodidgs — a large family, which includes the
Babblers and Bulbuls — are mainly short-flight birds, and
include a good many of our peculiar species.

In the sub-family Crateropodinge—the Laughing Thrushes —
out of four species three are found only in the Kandyan districts
of the Island. Crater ojms rufeMns — the Ceylonese Babbler —
occurs in the damp forests of the Western and Central Provinces,
the Province of Sabaragamuwa, and the Galle District.

Craieropus the Ashy-headed Babbler — is even

more circumscribed, being found only in the deep forests of
the wettest zone. On the other hand, we have Grateropus
striatus — the ubiquitous Seven Sisters — occurring all over the
Island up to 3,000 feet. It is found in India from Madras
southwards, but is especially common on the mainland *
opposite Mannar and in the north-west of Ceylon, sq that it
appears to be an invader from the Carnatic.

Pomatorhinus mdanurus — the Scimitar Babbler — again, is
peculiar to Ceylon. Its headquarters are in the Kandyan
districts, but its range extends towards a part of the northern
forest tract. An allied species — P. horsfieldi — is found in
the Malabar tract, but the genus is wanting in the Carnatic.

In the sub-family Timcliinge — the Quaker Thrushes — out of
four species three are peculiar to Ceylon, and only one, Dumetia
alhigularis — the Small White-throated Babbler — also occurs
in India, where it is noted only from the western part of the
peninsula. It is a bird found on the ragged edges of civilization
and scrub jungle, not in deep forest. It is more common in
the south of the Island than in the north, and is apparently
unknown in that part of the Carnatic which lies opposite to
Ceylon.

Of our three peculiar species, PyctorhiA nasalis—tha Ceylon
Yellow-eyed Babbler — is closely allied to another species —

P. sinensis — found all over India. Its range in Ceylon
approximates to that of Dumetia alhigularis. Pellomeutn
fuscicapillum — the Brown-capped Babbler— has spread all
over the Island, except in the Jaffna Peninsula and cn the
Mannar coast, One species of the genus — P. rufeeps — is
found on the mainland of South India, both in the Carnatic
and Malabar tracts.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

9

Of the Brachy'pteryginse we have three species, two of which
are confined to the upper hills of Ceylou.

Arrenga hligki — the Ceylonese Arrenga — is the sole species
in the genus. Its nearest relative is the genus MyioJ)hone^ls,
which has its headquarters in the Malay sub-region, so that
the bird is one of our scanty links with the Malayan fauna.
Elaphromis the Ceylon Short-wdng — is placed by

itself in a genus not found outside Ceylon, and its affinities
have not yet been determined with any degree of certainty.
The third species, Larvivora brunnea — the Indian Blue Chat —
is with us a migrant. Being of weak flight it works its way
.slowly down from its crossing place at Mannar to the central
hills.

In the sub-faniily Sibiinsp. we have two species, both belong-
ing to the gerus Zosierops. One, Z, palj)ebro$a~~th.e Indian
White-eye— is common all over the low-country, and has a
wide range in India ; the other, Z. ceylmensis--th.e Ceylon
White-eye—is peculiar to the Island, but is common at
elevations over 2,000 feet.

The sub-family Liotrichinse, which includes the Green
Bulbuls, does not furnish us with any peculiar species.

Ajgithina tiphior— the Bush Bulbul— has a wide range,
so has Gkloropsis jerdoni — Jerdon’s Bulbul ; Ckloropsis
malabarica — the Malabar Green Bulbul — is found in the
Malabar forests, and is sparingly distributed in Ceylon, while
Irene puella — the Fairy Blue Bird — is a rare visitor to our
hill districts. It hails from Malabar, and is unknowiv in the
Carnatic.

The last subdivision of this large family is the Brachy-
podinse— the true Bulbuls. We have six species, two of which
are peculiar. Hypsvpetes goneesd — -the South Indian Black
Bulbul— is found in the hill forests of the Malabar district and
in the Kandyan districts of Ceylon. It extends a little way
into the northern forest tract, as I have found it in East
Matale, but it is a rare straggler into the North-Central
Province and Trincomalee District.

Molpastes hsemorrkom — the Common Bulbul of our
gardens — is found nearly throughout India. lole ictcrica the
Forest Bulbul — is not found in the Carnatic, but occurs in

2 6 ( 7)14

10

SrOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the Malabar tract. In Ceylon it is found in the Kandyan
forests up to 3,500 feet, and penetrates some way into the
northern forest zone. Pyenonotus melanicteriis — the Black-
capped Bulbul~is a peculiar species found throughout the
Island in forest country up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. It
appears, however, to be commonest in Kandyan forests,
P. luteolus is found throughout the southern half of the Indian
Peninsula, and with us is common everywhere in the low-
country. Kdmrtia penkillata is the sole species in a genus
peculiar to the Island. It is found only in the upper hills,
down to 4,000 or 3,500 feet.

The DicruridWf or Drongo family, are also of interest as
regards distribution. We have six species in the Island,
four of which belong to the genus Vicrurus.

Dicrurus ater — the Black Drongo — is found thrpugh the
whole of India, but in Ceylon is confined to the Jaffna Peninsula
and the strip along the north-west coast as fai as Puttalain.
Elsewhere in the Island the common Drongo is D, leuccypy-
gialis — the White-vented Drongo— which ds a paler form of
J). capruhscens, a species which is said to be found in the same
parts of the Island as D. ater*

Dicruriis longicaudatus—thQ Indian Ashy Drongo — is a
migrant during the north-east monsoon to the east of the Island.

Turning to the Crested Drongos, Dissemurnlus lophorinus —
the Ceylon Black Drongo— is peculiar to the Island. Its
headquarters are the deep forests of tire Kandyan districts,
and it is replaced in the north-east and southeast by another
apecieii—Dissemuroides paradistus -the Racket-tailed Drongo,
which has a large range throughout suitiible localities in India,
and extends its range to Burma and the Himalayas.

Many of the Warblers — Silviidse—SkTi^ so widely distributed
that I do not propose to go through them all. The only two
species which are not common to Cbylon and the Malabar and
Carnatic tracts are Locusiella -Pallats Grasshopper

Warbler— and Scosknicola p/oiywm— the Broad-tailed Grass
Warbler —both of which have only been recorded once or
twice from our Island.

^Vide “ Fauna of Britiah India Birda,” Vol. I., p. 316 ; but aoo alao
Legge: “Birds of Ceylon,’* p. 394.

BISTEIBUTION OS' BIBOS IN CEYLON.

11

Our Shrikes — Laniidsd — in general are either migrants or
fairly widely distributed. One species j however, Lannis ery-
, thronotus — the Rufous-backed Shrike — is in Ceylon confined
to the Jaffna Peninsula and Mannar coast, though it is found
nearly throughout India.

The Eulabetidse — the Crackles, or Hill Mynahs — have a
curious distribution.

The genus Evldbes is not found in the Carnatic tract or in
northern Ceylon, bat in the southern half of the Island wc
have two species : Eitlabes piilogenys—the Ceylon Crackle — a
pecuhar species, which ranges from Avissawolla through
Sabaragamuwa to the summit of the main range, and E.
rdigiosa, which is found in more open country throughout'* the
^ Kandyan districts below 1,500 feet. It does net appear in
the northern forest tract, except here and there on the southern
edges. In India it appears to be confined to the Malabar
tract.

The Starlings — Sturnid^se — are represented in Ceylon by
four species. Pastor roseus — the Rose-coloured Starling — is a
rare and occasional migrant. Acridotheres melanostemus —
the Common Ceylon Mynah —is found all over the Island, but
nowhere else. A closely related species — A. tristis — occurs
throughout India.

Stumoruis senex — the White-headed Mynah— belongs to one
of our pecuhar genera. It is found only in the wild hill
forests of the Province of Sabaragamuwa and in the Pasdun
korale, where it descends to within a few hundred feet of
sea level.

Temenuchus pcbgodarum — the Black-headed M^mah — is
found in the dry districts. In India it is found in many parts,
but would appear to, be rare on the Malabar coast, though
common in Rameswaram in the Carnatic. Thence it appears
to have crossed to Mannar and made its way round the dry
coasts of the north and east as far to the south as Tangalla.
It is unknown between Chilaw and Tangalla, and it is found
only in dry scrub jungle.

Many of our Flycatchers — Muscimpidas — like our Warblers,
are migratory, or have a wide distri bution. I propose to notice
only two. 8ioparola sordida — the Dusky Blue Flycatcher — is

12

SPOLIA ZJSYLANICA

found in the Kandyan hills above 2,000 feet. Its nearest
relative is 8. albicatidata, which is confined to the hills of the
Malabar tract.

Rhipidura albifrontata — our Fan-tailed Flycatcher — is
found nearly all over India, but has a curiously restricted
range in Ceylon — a restriction shared by several other species
found in the Uva basin. It is abundant round Bandarawela,
and equally common southwards from the Haputale range to
the dry chenas of Tangalla and Hambantota. Its western
range would appear to be a line drawn south from Haputale
to Dikwella, ten miles west of Tangalla. North and east of
Baiidarawela it appears to range through the park country
to Polonnaruwa in the North -Central Province, where it stops
short on the boundary of the park country.

Many of our Thrushes— — show Malabar affinities,
and are restricted to the Kandyan districts ; others are
migrants , oi have a wide range. Pratmcola airatd — the Hill
Bush Chat — is found on the South Indian hills above 5,000
feet. In Ceylon it is found on the higher patanas down to
about 4,000 feet. Menda kinnisi — the Ceylon Blackbird —
is peculiar to the Island, being found only ori the higher
ranges. There are two nearly allied species on the hills of the
Malabar tract.

Oreocinda imbricata — the Ceylon Thrush — and 0. spiloptera
— the Spotted- wing Thiush — are both hill species peculiar to
Ceylon. The former is confined to hill forests over 3,000 feet,
the latter inhabits the central hill region below 4,000 feet, and
in places is found far into the low-country forests. The genus
occurs in the Malabar tract, but is unknown in the Carnatic.

Of the Plocidse, or Weaver Birds, we have ten species,
belonging to three genera, all of which are common to the
Malabar and Carnatic tracts. Most of our species, too, are
found to have a wide range in India, but there is one, Urolmcha
kelaarti~the Ceylon Munia— which is confined to the hills of
Ceylon at elevations of over 2,000 feet, A closely allied
species is found on the Malabar hills.

The Finches— are largely Himalayan, only
two species of Sparrow venturing as far south as Ceylon, both
of which are widely distributed in India.

DISTRIBUTION OR BIRDS IN CEYLON.

13

The Swallows with their migratory habits and powers of
flight would not seem likely to furnish us with a peculiar
species, but of the four species of Hirundo which occur within
our limits, one, Hirundo fiuyperythra — the Ceylon Swallow —
does not occur elsewhere, though found nearly all over the
Island; and another, Hirundo javanica — the Nilgiri House
Swallow— is really a Malayan bird found within the limits of
the Indian Empire only on the hills of Ceylon and Malabar.

The Motacillidde, which include the Wagtails and Pipits,
are largely migrant birds, and those species which are resident
with us are found over the greater part of India. The same
remark applies to the Larks, of which we have only three
species. One of these, Pyrrulanda grisea — the Ashy-oroVned
Pinch Lark — though found nearly throughout India, in Ceylon
is confined tc the dry coast districts.

Of the dainty little Sunbirds — Necioriniidss — we have four
species, all belonging to the genus Arachnechthra. A , minima,
a Malabar species, has been found only once or twice in
(ieylon, and the others are found throughout a large part
of the Indian Peninsula.

The equally small Flower-peckers— contain one

species worthy of note.

AcmonorhyTwus vincens, long known as Pachyglossaviiuefis —
Legge’s Flower -pecker — is one of our few Himalayan relicts.
Its nearest relative, Pachyglossa mdanoxantha, occurs in
Sikkim and Nepaul. Our species has retreated, not to the
hills, but to the deep forests in the wnttest zone of the low-
country between Adam’s Peak and the sea.

The sole Ceylon representative of the Pitt id se, or Painted
Thrushes, is with us a migrant.

Turning from the enormous order of the Passerine birds, we
now come to the Pici — Woodpeckers — an order of which the
distribution in Ceylon is full of interest, as it appears to
illustrate in a most striking manner an plder Malabar element
and a more recent Carnatic invasion. They are birds of
heavy build and weak powers of flight, so that they are not
fitted of their own accord to cross any but the narrowest
stretches of water, nor are they likely to be storm-driven for any
great distance . Their means of dispersal, therefore , are limited.

u

SFOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

We have nine authenticated species in Ceylon belonging to
six genera . Of these six genera, two , Gecinus and M icropternuSi
are absent from the Carnatic and north-west coast of Ceylon,
but present in the Malabar and Ceylon forests. A third genus,
LiopeuSy is absent from Malabar, but found in the Carnatic
and the dry zone of Ceylon. In two of the remaining three
genera, viz., Bfachypterniis and Chrysocolaptes, we have a
species peculiar to Ceylon, with its headquarters in the southern
part of the Island, together with a more widely distributed
species, which in Ceylon is found solely or mainly in the dry
Northern tract.

Going into details mom fully, the genus Gecinus is repre-
sented in Ceylon by two species, G. striolatm — the Green
Woodpecker — which is almost entirely confined to the
pa tanas of the Central Province, and G. chlorogaster — the
Yellow-naped Woodpecker — which occurs in the foothills
and the forests of the low-country, except in the north of the
Island.

As I have mentioned above, the genus is unknown in the
Carnatic.

On the other hand, Liopicus mahraiiensis— the Yellow-
fronted Pied Woodjjecker — is not found in the Malabar tract,
and in Ceylon it is confined mainly to the sandy scrub country
round the north-west coast, but some birds have crept round
the east coast to the similar region in the south-east, its
western limit on this side lying a few miles east of Tangalla.

lyngipicus gymnophthahius — tiie Ceylon Pigmy Wood-
pecker — is found mainly in the forests of Cbylon and the
Malabar tract. It would appear to be rare in the Carnatic,
and there are sub-specific differences between the Ceylon and
Malabar races.

Micropternm gularis — the Malabar Rufous Woodpecker —
is not found in the Carnatic. Its main haunts in Ceylon are
the forests at the base of the hills, but it spreads almost
through the northern forest tract.

The genus Brackypternns is represented in Ceylon by two
species.

B. av/rantius — the Golden-backed Woodpecker — which is
found throughout India, in Ceylon does not occur south of

DISTBIBITTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

15

the North-Central and North-Western Provinces. Its place
throughout the rest of the Island is taken by B, eryihronotus —
the Eed'backed Woodpecker — which is extremely common.
In the North-Central Province the two species overlap and
apparently interbreed, as intermediate forms are found. In
addition, the specimens of B. aurantius from this district are
generally orange -coloured on the back, while those of B.
trythronolus are of a less pure red than birds from the Southern
Province.

We have an almost similar distribution in the genus
Chrysocohptes,

C. siricklandi — Layard’s Woodpecker — is peculiar to
Ceylon, and occurs in forest country all over the l3lan<i- It
also, like B. eryihronotus, has a red back. It is replaced in
the Malabar forests by a golden-backed species, C. gutti-
cristatus. A third species, C. festivus — the Black -backed
Woodpecker~is rare on the Malabar coast, commoner in the
Carnatic, and occurs locally in the northern half of the Island,
though a few specimens, like those of Liopicus mahrattensis,
appear to have worked round to the north of the Hambantota
District.

The next order, that of the Zygodactyli, which comprises
the Barbets, is allso interesting. Out of four species two
are peculiar to Ceylon. Therciceryx zeylonicus-^xiT Common
Large Barbet — ranges nearly all over India, but Cyanops
flavijrons — ^the Yellow-fronted Barbet — is found only in
Ceylon, chiefly in the foothills, and belongs to a genus which
otherwise is confined to the north of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
Our species, therefore, is a Himalayan exile.

The remaining two species, Xanihdsema hsematocephala —
the Coppersmith — and X. rubricapilla — the Small Ceylon
Barbet —respectively belong to the Carnatic and Malabar
contingents. X. rubricapilla occui’s in the wet zone and part
of the northern forest tract. It is peculiar to Ceylon, hut is
closely akin to X. nudaharica, which occurs only in the
Malabar forests.

X. hsematocephala is common in the Carnatic and the dry
districts of Ceylon, but it is rare in the Malabar tract, and not
found in the wet zone of our Island.

16

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Rollers — Coracise — show a similar division. Coracias
ijidica — the Indian Roller — is a common Indian bird, but in
Ceylon it appears to be a newcomer by way of the Carnatic.
Its headquarters are the J^'orthem and North-Central Pro-
vinces, where it is quite a feature of the landscape. It migrates
occasionally as far south as the Western Province, but it has
not penetrated to the dry districts of the south-east, where
one would expect to find it. On the other hand, EurysUmus
orientalis — ^the Broad -billed Roller — belongs to a Himalayan
genus. The species is found in the Malabar hills, and is a
rare resident in that part of Ceylon which stretches
from Haputale south-west to the hills of the Morawak
korale.

The Bee -eaters — Meropes — have a like distribution. Merops
philippinus — the Bluc-tailed Bee -eater — is with us a migrant.
Merops viridis—the Green Bee -eater — has a wide range in
India, but in Ceylon keeps to the dry northern and eastern
side, being practically unknown in the Western Province and
the Galle District, There and up-country it is replaced by
Mdittophagus swinkoii, which doe.s not occur in the
Carnatic.

Of the seven species of Kingfishers — Alcedinidse — found
within our limits, two, Alcedo beavani — Beavan’s Kingfisher —
and Halcyon pileata — the Black -capped Kingfisher — have been
found only two or three times in Ceylon ; the other five species
occur both in the Malabar and Carnatic tracts.

The evidence afforded by the distribution of our Hornbilla
is rather conflicting.

Lophocerus gingalensis — the Little Ceylon Hornbill — is
peculiar to the Island, and occurs throughout the Island up to
elevations of 4,000 feet. An allied species, L. griseus, is found
only in the Malabar coast. As against this, Anihracocerus
coronatus — the Crowned Hornbill — a heavy ungainly bird,
incapable of a long sustained flight, is wanting in the Carnatic,
but its headquarters in Ceylon arc the drier forests in the
northern half of the Island. It thus forms a solitary exception
to the general rule.

Our only Hoopoe, Upupa iwdico— the Indian Hoopoe-ris
found practically throughout the Indian Empire.

DIS'TEIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

17

Most of our Swifts and Nigh tjars— itf ocrocAeire^— are of widely
distributed species, but certain of them are worthy of note.

Cdlocalia unicolor—the Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet— is a
rock-loving species found in the hills of Ceylon and the Malabar
tiact, but not in the Carnatic. Again, the weird-looking
Frogmoutb — Bcttrctchostomits Tnoniliger — belongs to a genus
which is found in the Himalayan region, in parts of Burma,
in certain of the Malabar districts, and in the deep forests of
Ceylon. Our species is confined to Ceylon and Malabar.
With us it is more plentiful in damp forests up to a moderate
elevation, but I have found it as far north as Anuradhapura,
and as far south-east as the banks of the lower Walawe-ganga.

Our only Trogon, Harpactesfasciatus—the Malabar Trogon—
is found throughout the Island in heavy forest. It is very
rare in the Carnatic.

The large family of the Cuckoos— is represented
in Ceylon by seventeen species, distributed among two sub-
families and eleven genera. Though most of them are
migrants, or range over a wide area, we have two peculiar
species, and several others are worthy of mention.

Penthoceryx sonnerati — the Banded Bay Cuckoo — the sole
species in the genus, is common in the forests of Malabar and
Ceylon, but very rare in the Carnatic.

Sumiculus liiguhris — the Drongo Cuckoo— which mimics
the Drongos, has a similar distribution, though it is everywhere
a rare bird.

The Red-faced Malkoha — Ph(micoph'des pyrrocephcdus — ^is
found only in Ceylon, and is the most noteworthy among the
few surviving relics of our Malayan fauna. It ia found in the
deeper forests all over the Island, except on the higher hills.
Lastly, of the widely distributed genus Centropvs we have
two species. Ceniropus sinensis — the Coucal or Crow
Pheasant — is a very common jungle bird all over Ceylon and
India. Centropus cMororhyncns is confined to Ceylon, where
it is restricted to the damp forests l3dng between Adam’s
Peak and the sea.

The large order of the Parrots — PsiUaci — is not largely
represented in the Indian Empire. Only three genera occur,
two of which are found in Ceylon.

3

6 ( 7)14

18

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

. Out of the genus Palseomis we have five species, two of
which are peculiar to the Island. One of these, P. eupatria —
our large Parroquet— is found nearly all over the Island, and
the difference between it and P. nepalensiSf which is widely
distributed in Northern India, is very slight.

The beautiful Blossom-headed Parroquets have in general a
much more local range.

P. cyanocephalus — the Western Blossom-headed Par roquet —
may be met with in suitable localities in Ceylon and the
Peninsula of India. P. calthropse — Layard’s Parroquet — is
confined to the centre and south-west of our Island, being
replaced in the Malabar tract by P. columboideSj which is
rather doubtfully recorded from Ceylon.

Loriculus indicus — the Ceylonese Loriquet — belongs to the
Malabar contingent. The genus is reptesented by our species,
which is found in the central and south-western parts of the
Island, and by Loricidus vernalis, which in the Indian
Peninsula occurs only on the Malabar hills, though it re-
appears in the Eastern Himalayas and Burma.

Of the Owls — Striges — we have eleven species.

Strixjlammea — the Bam Owl — though distributed through-
out India, with us occurs only in the Jaffna Peninsula.

Asio accipitrinus — the Short-eared Owl — was unknown in
Ceylon until a few years ago, when a good many specimens
suddenly appeared in the Western Province.

Symium indrani—th.Q Brown Wood Owl — one of the
candidates for the post of the Devil Bird, occurs most com-
monly in the Kandyan forests, but extends wherever there is
high jungle. It ranges through the Malabar coast, and is
found on the Himalayas, hut would appear to be rare or
wanting in the Carnatic..

Huhita Tiepalensis — the Pores t Eagle Owl — connects us with
the Himalayas. It is a hill species, also occasionally found in
the forests at the base of the mountains. Its range south of the
Ganges is restricted to the South Indian hills and Ceylon.

8cops giu — the Little Scops Owl — is found all over the Empire,
but Ceylon specimens show shght differences from those of the
peninsula. The same may be said of Scops hahkamoBna — the
Collared Scops Owl— which is so common round Colombo,

DISTBIBTJTION OF BIRDS IK CEYLOK.

19

Of our two species of Glaucidium, G, casiaTimotum — the
Chestnut-backed Owlet — is peculiar to the Island. Its
nearest relative, G. radiatum — the Jungle Owlet — is found,
like the last species, in the Kandyan forests, but it is also
common throughout the Malabar coast. The genus is rare
or wanting in the Carnatic.

The Hawks — Accipitres — are, in general, birds of powerful
flight, and therefore, as might be expected, birds of wide
range.

Many, indeed, are migrants or mere occasional stragglers to
the Island.

Among the order there is one curious gap in our fauna. Only
once has a specimen of a Vulture — Neophron ginginianus —
been recorded from Ceylon. That specimen, a young bird,
was obtained at Nuwara Eliya in 1879.

It will be necessary to note only a few species. Ictinmtus
malayensis — the Black Eagle — is mainly a Himalayan and
Malayan species wanting in the distiicts south of the Ganges,
except in the Malabar and Ceylon hills. With us it occasion-
ally wanders into the low-country.

Spizseius kdaarti — Legge’s Hawk Eagle — was long thought
to be peculiar to Ceylon, but it has now been found in
the Travancore hills. Milvas govinda — the Pariah Kite — a
widely-spread species in India, for some reason or other in
Ceylon confines itself to the northern scrub jungle tract, its
place elsewhere in the low-country being taken by Haliastur
indus — the Brahminy Kite — an eq^uaUy common Indian bird.

Two rare Kites are Baza lophotes — the Black-crested Baza —
and B. ceylonensis—leg^'s Baza. The genus is represented
north of the Ganges, but south of that river it occurs practically
orly in the Malabar tract and Ceylon. H. lophotes is with us
only a rare migrant from the Himalayas or Malay Peninsula,
while B, ceylonensis has been obtained several times in the
Kandyan hilLs, and once in the Wynaad,

The Doves-— found in Ceylon number twelve
species, divided among eight genera, but two of these genera — •
Croco^ and Mnop(ypdia—d,v^ represented solely by one or
two recorded specimens of Cf ocopiw chlorogaster — the Southern
Green Pigeon — and ^nopopdia tranquebarica — the Red

20

SfOLU ZBYLANIOA.

Turtle Dove. Two more species in other genera — Alsocc^us
pmicem (the Purple Wood Pigeon) and Turtur ferrago (the
Indian Turtle Dove) — have but the same slender claims to a
place in the Ceylon list.

Of our two common Green Pigeons, Osmotreron pompcidora —
the Pompaidour Green Pigeon — and Osmotreron hicincta — the
Orange-breasted Green Pigeon— the former is peculiar to the
Island, but is found in numbers throughout the low-country
forests. A closely related species, 0. affinis, is confined to
the Malabar coast. Osmotreron hicincta is equally common
throughout our low-country, but is not quite such a forest-
loving bird. This species ranges through Malabar to Orissa,
but is almost unknown in the Carnatic.

Carpophaga aenm — our fine Imperial Pigeon — found in deep
forest throughout the low-country, is likewise absent from the
Carnatic, though it ranges through the Malabar coast region.
ChcUcophaps Mica — the beautiful Little Bronze -wing Pigeon —
has an almost similar distribution in Ceylon and the Indian
Peninsula.

Columba intermedia — the Indian Blue Rock Pigeon — is a
local bird in Ceylon, being chiefly confined to a few islands
round the coast. It occurs through a large part of India.
Alsoccmns torringtonise — the Ceylon Wood Pigeon —is con-
fined to the hill forests of Ceylon, and its nearest relative, A.
dphinstonii, is found only on the Malabar hills. The genus
does not occur in the Carnatic.

Leaving out the accidental stragglers mentioned above, we
have two Turtle Doves in Ceylon : Turiar suratensis — the Ash
Dove — which is found throughout India, and Turtur risorius,
which is common throughout India in open country, but not
in forest. It is rare on the Malabar coast, and ii^ Ceylon it is
confined to the northern coast belt of scrub jungle.

This distribution of our Pigeons emphasizes to a remarkable
degree our Malabar and Carnatic connections. Out of eight
species which have real claims as inhabitants of the Island,
two are common to the three tracts. Only one other species
is common to Ceylon and the Carnatic, and in Ceylon it is
found only in that part of the Island which adjoins the
Catiiatic, while it is rare on the Malabar coast. The other

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 21

five species belong to genera oommoh to Ceylon and Malabar,
but rare or wanting in the Carnatic.

The Game Birds — Gallmss — tell almost the same tale. With
tbe exception of the Quails, some of which are migrants, they
are generally birds with a local distribution. The Peacock —
Pavo cnstatus—?X present is practically confined to tbe drier
scrub jungle tracts of the north, east, and south-east of the
Island, but the Sinhalese name for the bird enters into place
names, such as Monara-gala and Monara-natana-hena (the
chena where the peacock dances), in localities where the bird
is no longer found. It may be a Oamatic invader, or as the
bird is so often kept for show, it may have been introduced in
historic times by human agency.

Our Jungle Cook — Gcdlus lafayetti — ^is peculiar to Ceylon,
but has spread all over the Island. Its nearest ally — G. son-
"nerati — occurs both in the Malabar and Carnatic tracts, but I
do not think it is found on the sandy tracts on the Rames-
waram aide of Adam’s Bridge.

Our Spur Fowl — Golloperdix biccdcarata — occurs chiefly in the
south of the Island. On the south-east coast a few stragglers
wander right down to the sandy seashore, but on the northern
side it stops within a short distance of the foothills south of
DambuUa. An allied species is found in South India.

Our Quails are fairly widely distributed, but all are rather
rare or sporadically scattered here and there through the low-
country, The Common Bustard Quail — Tumix ptt^ax — is
not a true Quail, but belongs to another order. FrancoUnws
pictvs — the Painted Partridge— has a peculiar local distri-
bution, being found only on the Uva patanas, and from thence
eastward to the low-country by Nilgala and Bibile. F. pondi-
ceriantLS — the Gray Partric^e^is confined to the northern
scrub tract. It is unknown on the Malabar coast south of
Bombay, but ranges through the Carnatic to Afghanistan.

With the order Grallss, which comprises the Rails, we enter
upon the vast assemblage of water birds, waders, and birds
of the shore or of inland sandy tracts.

These water birds include in their ranks the larger number
of bur migrants, and the resident species and genera are
mostly widely diffused. Most of them are found all over

22

SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

India wherever conditions are suitable. For this reason, as
regards Ceylon, comparatively few of them need be looked
for in the Kandyan districts. There are few large tanks for
the swamp birds, few suitable lagoons for the waders, and no
sandy tracts for the shore birds.

With reference to the haunters of sandy shores and wastes,
we have two suitable centres in Ceylon. One the northern
scrub tract, where the Ceylon coast approaches the Carnatic,
and a similar stretch near the south-east coast. Kow there
are several species found in the northern tract which are
not found in the south-eastern, and in running through the
remaining orders of birds I wish specially to note these
species, for a reason which wiU become apparent later on.

To return to the Rails. They belong to an order which also
contains the Cranes and Bustards, the two last noteworthy
gaps in our avifauna. Of our Rails, the three Water Hens —
Porfhyrio poliocephalus (the Purple Water Hen), Amauromis
fhoiniewrus (the White -breasted Water Hen), and Gdlinvla
chloropits (the Moor Hen) — are all birds with a wide range.
Five other species are rare migrants to our shores, and only
one, Gallicrex cineria — the Water Cock — is noteworthy, as not
occurring in the Carnatic. It is locally distributed through
our low-country swamps, but as far as my experience goes it
is more scarce in the north of the Island.

Turning to the Limicolse, or Waders, of the three families
(Edicnemidas, Dromadidae^ and Glareolidsa, which comprise our
aberrant Plovers, we have in Ceylon six species. They are all
birds which love sandy tracts near the sea or in river beds.
Four of them — (Edicnemus scolopax (the Stone Plover), Msacus
recurvirostris (the Great Stone Plover), and the two Swallow
Plovers, Glareola lactea and 0 , Orientalis^a>re found both in
the north and the south-east. Dromaa ardmla — the Crab
Plover — and Gursorius coromanddxcua — the Indian Courser —
are only found in the north. It may be noted that G, carman
delicus is rare on the Malabar coast. Our true Plovers, as a
rule, are found over a large part of India. The remainder of
the Waders call for little comment.

The same may be said of our Gulls, Terns, and Pelicans,
and Various sea birds.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

23

Of the Storks and Herons, I may remark in passing a curious
point about one species, Gorsa^him mdanolophis — the Malay
Bittern. It is common in Malaya, but it is unknown west of
the Bay of Bengal, except in Ceylon, where it is a rare migrant
to the low-country, and in the hill forests of Malabar, where it
appears to breed.

Nearly all our Ducks are migrants ; the only common
species resident in the Island are the Whistling Teal—
cygna javanica — and the Quacky Duck— Neitapis coromandeli-
anus — which are found nearly all over India.

Our list of birds is closed by the Dab -chick — Podicefs
albi'pennis — which may also be met with all over India ^and
Burma.

Now, what are the salient facts that appear as the result
of the foregoing summary ?

In the first place, it will be noted what a large proportion
of our resident avifauna shows an affinity with that of Malabar,
This affinity applies in special to the Kandyan Provinces and
the wet zone of the low-country. Not only does the main
element among the bird population of our hills closely corre-
spond with that of the Indian Ghauts, but the birds of the
damp low-country zone are as closely connected with those of
the forests of the Malabar coast. A good many of the species
and genera common to these two tracts are not met with in
the Carnatic, and this peculiarity of distribution is most marked
in the case of our short-flight birds.

On the other hand, in the extreme north and north-west of
the Island the species are largely the same as in the Carnatic.
These two regions possess several genera, and a larger
number of species which are not found in the wetter parts of
Ceylon or in the Malabar district.

Again, by far the larger number of peculiar species and
genera belong to the Malabar type of fauna, and have their
headquarters in the wet zone.

A few of our peculiar birds are of Himalayan or Malayan
origin, but none of them are of the Carnatic type.

Lastly, our Himalayan species belong to the “ Malabar
portion of Ceylon,

24

SPOWA ZEYLANICA.

Tp sum up the situation in a few words, the ^tffinity

in the wet zone is shown by close correspondence of typo ;
the Carnatic afl&nity in the dry zone by complete identity of
species.

How are we to account for this dual distribution of birds ?

I do not think it can easily be contended that the main
Malabar element in the Kandyan districts invaded the Island
across an intervening dry Carnatic zone. If this had been
the case, there surely would have been more connecting links
in the intervening region ?

Nor, again, does it appear likely that the Malabar element in
the Kandyan districts and the Carnatic element in the north
of the Island developed side by side. In this case the
separation of Ceylon from India would be a mere geological
incident, without any serious zoo-geographical import. It
would imply that Ceylon for some time had been a mere
prolongation southwards of the Malabar and Carnatic tracts,
and I do not think that this is a satisfactory explanation of
the distribution of our birds.

If this supposition were correct, one would expect that the
whole of Blanford’s Northern Region of Ceylon — i.e., the whole
of the east of the Island from Jaffna to Tangalla — would have
a more or less uniform Carnatic element ; whereas, as a matter
of fact, that element diminishes considerably as one travels
southward. One would also expect that the species peculiar
to the Island would be more equally distributed.

I venture to suggest as the most satisfactory solution of the
problem the hypothesis that thn distribution of our birds can
be explained by assuming the Malabar and Himalayan elements
to belong to an older period, when our fauna had an uninter-
rupted communication with the fauna of the Malabar coast,
and when the Carnatic element, due to a later invasion,
was as yet unrepresented.

This uninterrupted communication with the Malabar coas^
was afterwards broken, and almost ail communication for
birds of short flight between Ceylon and the mainland was cut
off by a subsidence of the earth’s surface, which would have
submerged the north-west and south-east of our Island and a
fairly wide strip of the opposite mainland. Quite a smajl

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEiTLON. 25

difference of level would let in the sea over a broad stretch of
country on either side of Adam’s Bridge.

Our birds of weak flight would then be isolated, and the
isolation would give an impetus to the formation of local
peculiar species.

A considerable period of depression would then have been
followed by re-elevatiou and the connection of Ceylon with
India by a possibly continuous land surface between the
mainland, Rameswaram, and Mannar.

The argument for this elevation is supported by the evidence
of recent marine deposits on the northern coast from Mannar
round to Trincomalee, so it is by no means geologically
unsound. *

Ceylon being once more united to India, the more recent
Carnatic invasion would find its way into our Island, and
would naturally make its inhucnce most felt at the point of
entry.

Have we any evidence to date these successive movements ?
Of course, it must be understood that I am arguing mainly, if
not solely, from the distribution of our birds.

I think a possible clue may be found in the presence of the
Himalayan element among our birds.

At the close of the tertiary ages wc know that an arctic
climate prevailed over the northern temperate regions to such
an extent that the whole of the north of Europe and Asia w^as
buried under a great sheet of ice, while beyond the limits of
this northern ice sheet the Alps and Pyrenees M^erc loaded
with vast snow fields, from which enormous glaciers descended
into the plains on either side.

Evidence of this glacial epoch is also found in the Himalayas.
The great termmal moraines of the enormous glaciers of this
period are found in Sikkim at an elevation of 7,000 feet,
whereas at the present day no glacier in Sikkim descends
below 14,000 feet.*

Thus, all over the Northern Hemisphere the temperature
would have been considerably lower than at present, and
during the coldest part of the great Ice Age a large portion of
the Himalayan region must have been covered by snow and

* Blanford : “ Phil. Traaa.i” loc, cit,f p 435.

4

6(7)14

26

SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

ice. Many of the animals and birds would have been driven
soujh to a warmer climate, and some of the temperate Hima*
layan types appear to have penetrated as far south as the hills
of Southern India and Ceylon.

Our noticeable Himalayan birds number about a dozen, viz.,
Cissa omata (the Ceylon Magpie), Eidahes religiosa and
E. ptilogenys (the two Hill Mynahs), Acmonorhyncus vincens
(Legge’s Flower-pecker), Cyanops Jlamfrons (the Yellow-
fronted Barbet), Eurystomus orientalis (the Broad-billed
Roller), Melittophaym swinhx)ii (the Chestnut -headed Bee-
eater), Collocalia nnicolor (the Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet),
Bairachostomiis 7mmliger (the Frogmouth), Loriculus indicus
(the Ceylon Parroquet), Photodilus assimilis (the Ceylon Bay
Owl), Huhua nepalensis (the Forest Eagle Owl), and Chal-
copkaps Mica (the Bronze -wing Pigeon).

It must be borne in mind that this “ Himalayan dozen ”
represents the small band of survivois from a considerably
larger immigration.

Now, over half of these survivhig species are birds of weak
powers of flight, to whom a wide arm of the sea would prove
an exceedingly formidable barrier. It is quite possible,
therefore, that when the onset of the glacial epoch drove the
temperate Himalayan species southwards, Ceylon was con-
nected with the Malabar coast, or not separated by any
serious barrier.

Wbat was the nature of this connection ?

The sea now lying between the Ceylonese “ Malabar tract ”
and the Malabar coast is fairly wide and of a considerable
depth. There is a shallow submerged plateau frnjging the
Ceylon coast off Colombo, and a similar plateau on the Indian
side. But these plateaux are of no great 'svidth, and between
them lies a deep sea basin. In fact, a few miles from each
shore the water suddenly deepens from a few fathoms to 600
fathoms or more, and this depression reaches north to within
a few miles of Adam’s Bridge.

If we are to maintain that the connection during the glacial
period was formed by a continuous land surface, say, from
Colombo to Tuticorin, we must postulate that this sea floor
was then over 3,000 feet higher than now ; and also to prevent

DISTRIBUTION OB' BIRDS IN CEYLON.

27

awkward complications on the “ Carnatic ” side of the Island,
we must argue that the present connection via Adam’s Bridge
was then under the sea, or relatively more than 3,000 feet
lower than at the present day.

Now, depressions and elevations of the earth’s surface are
not the result of sudden spasms, but are due to infinitely
gradual processes of long duration, and although an earth
movement of 3,000 feet is far surpassed by many on record,
a change of such large vertical measurement would be spread
over a wide area. Consequently, one cannot invoke at will a
fairly sudden change of over 3,000 fret in level between
Tuticorin and Colombo dying away to nothing along the axis
of Adam’s Bridge unless there is geological evidence to support
it. In the present case there is no such evidence on record ;
in fact, the nature of the sea basin in the Gulf of Mannar is all
against the assumption o! such a large movement within such
recent geological times.

If, however, the ehmatic conditions during the glacial
epoch arc considered, it is quite possible the connection
required to bridge the gap may have lain along the present
shallow belt of sea — which is nowhere more than seven
fathoms deep— extending from Adam’s Bridge for at least
fifty miles to the north.

The present arid condition of our “ northern maritime
belt ” and the opposite Indian coast is no doubt intensified
by the sterile nature of the soil : a wide stretch of sand recently
covered by a shallow sea, and incapable of supporting a growth
of heavy forest. Before its temporary submersion this tract
may well have been country much like the central forest
portion of the North-Central Province. We must also
remember that during glacial times our climate, besides being
colder, was probably also damper, as the Himalayan snow
fields were so much moie extensive.

It LS not so hard then to suppose that, given a lower tempera-
ture when evaporation would be diminished, and probably also
given at the same time a heavier rainfall, there would be a
continuous stretch of forest damp enough to allow free inter-
course for a Malabar type of fauna bet\TOen the Malabar coast
and the south-west of Ceylon.

28

SPOLIA ^BYLANICA.

To account for the numerous peculiar species in Ceylon, we
must now suppose a break in this intercourse lasting for some
little time. It must, therefore, have begun soon after the
close of the glacial epoch, and quite possibly its beginning was
contemporaneous with the close of that period.

As the climate grew warmer, the Himalayan birds would
retreat northwards again, or make for the higher elevations
and the dampest forests.

When this northerly retreat began some of the species
might have found themselves cut off, not only by a belt of
low-country forest in which tropical conditions were again
begimiing to prevail, but also by the separation of Ceylon from
the 'mainland. This would account for the presence among
our birds of such isolated short-flight species as Cyanops
flavifrons (the Yellow -fronted Bar bet), Cissa ornaia (the Ceylon
Magpie), mdAcimJ2orhynchus vincens (Legge’s Flower-pecker),
whereas these genera do not occur in the Malabar tract.
Either their retreat was not out off from the Malabar hills, or
they have since died out there in the struggle for existence.

We then come to a period fairly long in time, though short
geologically s}:)eaking, in which Ceylon was an island of
curtailed dimensions. The Ioav - lying “ arid maritime belts
of the north-west and south-east would bo under water. The
rest of the Island would be populated with an indigenous
fauna of the Malabar tyf)e. The climatic conditions would
be much the same as those of the present day. Migrants and
other birds which could cross the intervening soa would come
to our shores, or bo carried by the monsoons against their
will, and if the conditions were to their liking would settle
down here.

Within a measurable distance of historic times re-elevation
set in, and continuous communication wa.? again established
with India across Adam’s Bridge. The dry-country “ Car-
natic ” type of birds, which heretofore had been wanting in
Ceylon, would find in the newly elevated sandy tracts localities
in which they could flourish, and, of course, the invasion w'ould
be accompanied by a good many birds common to Malabar
and the Carnatic. This invasion would account for the fact
that in so many of our families and genera you will find a

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

29

species peculiar to the south-western region side by side with
a later-comer, distributed all over Ceylon, Malabar, and the
Carnatic. The Crateropodidm, or Babblers, afford an instance
of this, and the two strata among our birds are exceedingly
well shown by our Woodpeckers.

Chrysocolaptes stricklandi — Layard’s Woodpecker — and
Brachypternus erythrorwius — the Ked-backed Woodpecker —
belong to the older contingent ; C. jestivm — the Black -backed
Woodpecker — and auraniius — the Golden-backed Wood-
pecker — to the later invasion. Liopicus makratiensis — the
Yellow -fronted Pied Woodpecker — is a Carnatic invader,
belonging to a genus unrepresented in the Island before.

The invasion, like all other invasions, shows a record of
varying success. Some species have succeeded in over-
running the whole Island, others have only obtained a footing
close to the point of entry. Similarly, with regard to the
older inhabitants, soine ma)^ have already retreated to the
damper and cooler portions of Ceylon before the nev'Comers
came over, others may have l)eeri driven to their strongholds
by the invaders, and others again, like our Jungle Cock — Gallus
lafeyetti — and Acridotheres mela-nosternus — the Ceylon Mynah —
have maintained their position all over the Island.

The recency of the invasion can be argued from the absence
of any peculiar species among our Carnatic birds, and still
more from the fact that so many of them have not succeeded
in penetrating to the south-east of the Island, where the
conditions are suitable. One would expect to find in the dry
Hambantota District such species as Coracias vidica — the
Indian Roller, Turtur risoriiis- — the Indian Ring Dove, and
more especially Cursorins coromandelicus — the Indian Courser
— and FraricoUnus pondicerianus — the Gray .Partridge . These
and other omissions are aU the more noticeable, as the type
of fauna found in this south-eastern maritime belt is essentially
the same as that of the similar belt in Maimar, and contains'
a very small proportion of the Malabar type of fauna.

Before leaving the question of earth movements, it may be
remarked that ^geological indications point to the conclusion
that the last movement of elevation, which united Ceylon to
the Indian Continent, has ceased, and that there is now' a.

30

SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

slow process of subsidence, which, if continued, will result
in another period of zoological isolation. It may well he that
Adam’s Bridge was dry land until the dawn of historical
times, and that Idio traditions of encroachments by the sea
off Mannar and Colombo are founded on fact.

Such are the recent geological changes which I have assumed
in order to account for the distribution of our birds.

But hypotheses which will suit admirably the distribution
of one class of animals may not square at all with that of other
orders. Further, as I said at the beginning of my Paper,
birds are not nearly so sure a guide as mammals, while the
differences between species are rather small distinctions upon
which to form conclusions. As a counterbalance to these
defects, the evidence regarding our Ceylon birds is fairly
cumulative, and points persistently in one direction.

The earth movements w^hich I have assumed need not
exceed a vertical measurement of 50 feet in either direction
from the present level, and the change in climatic conditions
during the glacial period is by no means wildly improbable.
So I have hopes that my assumptions may not prove to be
wholly empty theories. Indeed, they are more or less con-
firmed by conclusions independently formed by Mr. Wayland,
Assistant Mineral Surveyor, who has been investigating the
river gravels in the valleys of the Kelani and Kalu-ganga. A
few months ago, while the materials for my Paper were only
half collected, and while my ideas were still rather nebulous,
I sent him a short statement of the subsidence and re-
elevation which I supposed might have taken place, and asked
whether he knew of any geological evidence to support or
disprove their existence. I received from him the following
answer, of which ho has permitted me to make use ; —

As far as I am aware, very little has been done witli regard to
the recent earth movements in tlie South of India and
Ceylon

Your letter came as a curiously unexpected coiifinnation of my
own views with regard to the recent earth movements in this
country. I have been paying some attention to the high level
gravels of the Kelani Valley and of the Ratnapura District, and
in order to explain the distribution, &c., of the gravels, I invoked
a fairly large subsidence (something over 50 feet), which, according
to my interpretation, probably increased in a N.N.W. direction.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON.

31

Then came upheaval (possibly in two stages), which resulted in
the land standing at a higher level, in relation to the sea, than
it does to-day. Then subsidence again set in.

I have not sufficient evidence to enable me to state with
certainty that this is tho true explanation of the facts. It is the
attitude which I feel justified in adopting at present.

It is only fair to state, however, that the Principal Mineral
Surveyor does not agree with me in attributing the high level
gravels to subsidence of the land. He believes that they have
been left high and dry by the river, which has cut its way deeper
since the days when the gravels were deposited.

Personally I believe that these movements have taken place
within human times, as I have recently discovered what I maintain
to be (and in this Mr. Hartley corroborates my view) artefacts of
stone in some of tho highest gravels.

I believe that Mr. Wayland intends to follow up the subject,
and will in due course give us his conclusions formed on a more
complete investigation. On the zoo-gcographical side, the
recent collection of mammals made in the Island by Major
Mayor, on behalf of the Bombay Natural History Society,
should afford most magnificent material for examination,
especially as it will link up with similar work throughout
India. Unfortunately Major Mayor has left the Island
before visiting the Northern and North-Western Provinces,
the very districts most vital to my theory. It is to be hoped
that he will return and complete the work which has thus been
left unfinished.

If the distribution of mammals agrees with that of the birds,
I would suggest the following modification of Blanford’s
zoo-geographical tracts.

Instead of his Southern Hill tract and Northern Ceylon tract,
I would divide the Island into —

(1) A division which would comprise the main hill region
and the wet low-country zone lying between it and the
western coast. The north-western boundary would cut the
coast between Chilaw and Puttalam, and the south-eastern
boundary between Matara and Tangalla.

This division, which might be called the Kandyan tract,
would represent the stronghold of the Malabar element, and
would correspond, more or less, with Blanford’s Southern Hill
tract,

(2) A division which would include Legge’s Indo-Ceylonese
district, t.e., the arid maritime belts of the north-west, north,

32

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and south-east, with, perhaps, the sea-borde of the Eastern
Province as a connecting link. This might be called the
Jaffnese tract, and would represent the districts in which the
Carnatic invaders had made good their footing.

(3) The last division w'ould comprise the drier forest region
with a rainfall of from 50 to 75 inches. This is the country
through which the Malabar and Carnatic contingents overlap,
and might be called the Intermediate tract.

I would not distribute this tract betw’een the other two,
but keep it separate, owing to its relatively large area, and
the fact that, on the whole, the character of its avifauna is
fairly constant throughout, lacking many of the damp-loving
“ Malabar species ” on the one hand, and of the dry-country

Carnatic species ” on the other.

Until, however, the evidence both geological and zoo-
geographical ls more complete, these divisions and reconstruc-
tions of the part must be, more or less, a matter of conjecture.
The collection and examination of that evidence is a task in
which members of our Society can render useful help, whatever
branch of Natural History may be their hobby.

Perhaps some day Government will expand the present
Mineralogical Survey into a full -bio w'li Geological Survey, and
thus provide officers, part of whose work will be to make a
full scientific investigation and to give an authoritative
pronouncement. Meanwhile I have started an interesting
bare, and I hope that others will pursue it.

INTEEPEETATION OF NATURE

33

«*THE interpretation of NATURE”

AND

“THE NATURE OF INTERPRETATION,”*

By E. J. Wayland, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., &c.,
Assistant Mineralogical Surveyor (Ceylon),

Late National, Post Gradvxite, and MarsJiall (Biological) Resmrch
Scholar, Royal College of Science, London,

A,— THE INTERPRETATION OE NATURE.

^PHE term " naturalist ” is, in the popular acceptation,
^ a very wide one ; it includes aU folk from the narrowest
specialist with but one idea (his own) to the over-enthusiastic
amateur with too many ideas for complete digestion (generally
not his own) ; it includes investigators who think seriously
about their work, and wonder -seekers whose sole quest of
Nature is novelty. It iiicludes those who hug detail and those
who despise it, systematists who collect things for classification
and collectors who gather specimens as a schoolboy gathers
postage stamps. In fine, all sorts and conditions of people
who think or read about Nature at all.

As the branches of natural knowledge constitute, more or
less, separate departments of science, the various followers of
Nature are best named from the department in which they
work, i.e., as mycologists, brachyopodists, &c., so that the
name “ naturalist ” is more appropriately reserved for those
fortunate people who are able to take a broad, intelligent, and
comprehensive interest in the general problems of natural
science. It is in that sense that the name is employed in
this paper.

One of the facts which strongly impresses itself on the
minds of those who study living Nature is that specialization
carried beyond certain limits is a bad thing for the individual ;
good, as it may be, for the community.

6

A lecture delivered to the Ceylon Natural History Society.

6 ( 7)14

34

SPOLU ZEYLANIGA.

Specialization, however, is as cardinal a factor in natural
history as it is in Nature, and in these days of rapid progress
the professed scientific investigator is forced to confine the
best of his attention within comparatively narrow limits.
Thus, as the growth of knowledge accelerates, the specialists
are driven into ever-narrowing fields of research. The result
of this minute investigation is a most voluminous and highly
technical Literature, which functions as a barrier between what
have been called “ The man of science ” and “ The man in the
street.”

As a matter of fact, “ men of science ” taken as a whole do
not constitute a special breed of humanity intended for the
guidance of the rest, and at least as many good potential
naturalists (not to speak of private investigators) are to be
found outside the professional ranks as active scientists within
them. Commonly enough the amateur has better right to
the title of “ naturalist ” than the professional man.

Specialization tends to put the universe out of focus for the
conscientious specialist, for he is generally so absorbed in his
investigations that he has no time to thoughtfully consider
in what relation his work stands to the work of all other
naturalists. Indeed, that is a special hne of investigation
itself. As one’s judgment of the whole is warped in proportion
as one’s knowledge of the whole is disproportionate, specialists
view the facts of the world by the hght of their special know-
ledge, and not their special knowledge by the light of the facts
of the world. We all do this, of course, but, inasmuch as
human life and intellect is limited, it must follow that the more
special your knowledge, the greatci its disproportion, and
that, other things equal, one’s right to the title of naturalist
diminishes in proportion as one’s knowledge of some branch
of natural science increase?. Specialization is an admirable
thing, hut its dangers should be recognized, and here it may
be remarked that the vast accumulation of facts which has
resulted from the patient labours of those engaged in special
research opens a great field for general investigation, for
philosophy, in fact, not for vaguely speculative and groundless
guesses, which have so often masqueraded as the essence of
wisdom, but for a philosophy based on a solid foundation of

intebpretation of nature.

35

facts, built up with the greatest care and the soundest of
judgment by the adoption of those reliable methods of interro-
gation which form the foundations of science. This field of
philosophy, then, is the domain of the true naturalist — ^perhaps
one might almost say the super-naturahst.

It will not be easy to define Nature to everybody’s satisfac-
tion if we admit into the definition, as some may be inclined to
do, some theory of the ultimate constitution of things. But
we all know what we mean by “ Nature,” and for our present
purposes we will say that “ Nature” is the external world
unaltered by man ; that a natural thing is an apparent entity
in this external world, while a naturalist is a person who
endeavours to understand the relation of natural things to
each other.

It is both customary and complimentary to assume that
the object of the Nature student in familiarizing himself with
the phenomena of natural things is the discovery of truth, and
pertaining to some particular group of natural things in
which he happens to be interested. h\u‘ther, the belief that
truth immutable underhes Nature is universal, and it is
commonly supposed that this is the truth towards which the
results of science tend with ever-increasing precision to
approach.

It is not my intention to discuss the nature of ultimate
truth at all, nor, indeed, in the first part of my Paper to show
what the truths of natural history really are, for this cannot
be profitably undertaken till we clearly understand what they
are not.

The ultimate question which a naturalist asks of anything
is, “ How does it come to exist?” And this is the question
which I propose we put to the truths of natural history. How
do they come to exist ? In other words, how do we interpret
Nature ?

There is no question, of course, that the object of science
(and all science is natural history) should be to discover the
most complete and adequate conception of the relation of
different facts to each other, or, to use the less accurate and
more popular phraseology, ‘‘ the cause of things.” All
aeienoe has this object in view, and the philosophy which has

S6

SPOLLA. ZBYLANICA.

any other object than this, though it may be Nature-study, is
not science. It is not enough that this object should be
professed, it should be a very real and thorough principle with
the observer, whose aim should always be to read his theories
out o/and not into Nature.

Such an inquirer will of necessity adopt the only method
open to him, and it is the method rather than the object which
has earned the name of science.

There are three stages in the process of elucidating pheno-
mena : (i.) the collecting of facts ; (ii.) the correlation of
facts ; and (iii.) the formation of theories to account for the
facts. The first two are inseparable, and may be lumped
together under the head of Description, while the third may be
called Interpretation,

In practice description and interpretation go hand in hand,
and while this association is advantageous and desirable for
the progress of research, it is also a constant source of danger to
that very progress which it serves to stimulate. Fortunately,
in these days description is a recognized part of the routine
of a pioneer’s work ; it is the first step in his investigation,
A few centuries ago, however, its contribution to the inter-
pretation of things was, by comparison, trifling, as a study of
the cosmologies, or of the beliefs of the middle ages, will serve
to show. More than one right-minded student, who in the
good old days dared to relegate observation to its rightful
place, paid for his boldness with considerable discomfiture, and
in some cases with his life. We recognize this as deplorable
indeed, yet stiU we are not quite so apt in separating descrip-
tion and interpretation as we should be.

Description in earlier days was less indulged in than it is at
present, because natural knowledge was the monopoly of a
few educated people, whose authority, as naturalists, was
considered infallible.

Amusing illustrations of the situation were abundant, as
when in the middle ages the question of the number of teeth
in the horse was debated with great heat in many contentious
writings. Apparently none of the contestants thought of the
simple expedient of counting them, but tried to sustain their
position by reference to authority.

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE.

37

Again, one who noticed spots on the sun became convinced
of the error of his eyes, because Aristotle had somewheie
written “ the face of the sun is immaculate.”

This childlike faith in authority not only excused people
from personal experiment, but led to the curious idea that
practical investigation was unworthy of the philosopher, and
even up to the first half of the nineteenth century a knowledge
of such things as physiology and anatonay was regarded as the
private property of medical men. It was thought a little
coarse for any but a doctor to know a few simple facts about
the circulation of the blood, and such like.

The cosmologists despised description ; we are wont to
confuse it with interpretation. We are still cosmologists at
heart, but with the difference that if the older naturalists
might be said to solve the universe from the depths of the
armchairs in the parlour, w'e, on the other hand, may be often
accused of taking our armchaiis into the field.

To-day, of course, there aie several departments of natural
history which deal almost exclusively with description, as,
for instance, pure geography and petrography, and the syste-
matic sides of botany, zoology, and paleontology. Philosophy,
on the other hand, concerns itself entirely with interpretation,
but .cientifio, or, as we say, “ natural philosophy,” works
from a basis of observed facts.

The intelligent worker in the field of natural history
combines description and interpretation, thereby proving
himself a natural philosopher, e nd if when stepping beyond the
realm of description he is entering dangerous territory where
guides are few and mistakes are easy, he may console himself
with the knowledge that many mistakes are avoidable if only
one will tread warily and look before leaping ; and that if he
stand- to take the wrong path, he also stands to get somewhere
intei'esting in the end. It has been wisely said that if you
confine yourself to description you cannot go far wrong, but,
then, you cannot go far.

The error one invariably make? when entering the field of
natural philosophy is the one aheady alluded to, of confusing,
description with interpretation. One is generally led into
this mistake by the influence of some theory at the back of

38

SPOLIA ZEYLAKICA.

one’s mind, which unconsciously causes one to describe things
in its own terms. There is, for instance, a general tendency
among naturalists to make every peculiarity of living things
fall in line with the theory of natural selection, and when such
and such an animal or plant is found to possess such and such
a puzzling feature, then we immediately invent a use for the
said puzzhng feature, and declare that its use is the cause of
its existence. When we cannot invent a use, w^e assume that
it once had one, and call it rudimentary, or that its full func-
tion is yet to be, and say the feature is elementary. Failing
these, we say we have not discovered its use, but we firmly
behevo that sooner or later we shall find a use for it. In
adopting this position w'e fail to realize the unwarrantable
nature of the assumption we make in doing so, i.e,, that every-
thing that survives in Nature has some selective value. Again,
if any organ can be shown to have a use, we never fail to assume
that that organ has played a very significant part in the
evolution of its possessor, and this on account of a pre-
conceived idea of what evolution means.

Theoiy'', you will observe, is guiding description. The
temptation to read one’s pet ideas into Nature has always
been a great failing with the naturalist, and is probably no
less common to-day than it ^vas centuries ago. It is this
process of “ reading in ” which has been dignified by the name
of reasoning from analogy — a titlo which it unquestionably
deserves, for, whereas the common sense interpretation of
Natur ^ depends upon the likeness of things, the scientific con-
ception is founded on differences. For example, the sameness
of the signs of hfe as exhibited in both the plant and animal
kingdoms has lead to the idea that any general principle in the
one will bo found to have its equivalent in the other. Conse-
quently, it was thought that the phenomenon of circulation
as seen in the arterial and venal systems of animals was to be
paralleled by the passage of the sap in the xylem and phloem
tissues of plants, and when Mr. Ruskin (after turning up aU
the indexes of the best botanical authorities of his day) found
, occasion to grumble' at those gentlemen because ho could
find no mference to the “ circulation of the sap,” he had to be
told that the botanists had discovered their mistake.

INTEBPEETATION OF NATURE.

39

The confusion of theory and fact is a fault too commonly
seen, especially, one regrets to say, among those whose
business it is to teach the principles of science.

For example. Everybody knows that many plants, when
kept from the influence of light, turn pale, and by lengthening
their intemodes grow long. It is commonly taught that this
is the plant’s adaptation for finding light. That the plant is
devoting its energies to the production of extra long shoots,
because by doing so it stands a better chance of thrusting
some part of its person out of the darkness than if it grew
normally. More than once I have heard it said, by people,
who ought to know bettor, that this groping for daylight is a
fact. But is it ? Of course not.

Many plants become etiolated (lose their green colour) and
lengthen out their members when the stimulus of light is
withheld. This is the fact. It is obvious that by this abnor-
mal growth their chances of reaching daylight are enhanced.
This is also a fact. But the statement that they enhance their
chances or any parallel statement is not a fact, and is probably
(but not necessarily) untrue.

The point is that because the chances of good fortune are
increased by the plant’s behaviour, it has been mferred that the
behaviour is a direct response to the existence of those chances,
which inference is a theory accounting for the plant’s behaviour,
and must not be confured with the fact of behaviour it&elf.

Again, the study of cytological phenomena led to the
prediction by Rabl of a remarkable form of conjugation of
ceiitrosomes. Fol, in 1891, a year after Rabl’s prediction,
actually described such a conjugation in the growing cells of
soa urchins under the picturesque irame of The quadrille
of centros.” Ijalor in the same year Guiguard discovered
the same phenomenon in a member of the plant world (in a
hly in fact). Between 1891 and 1895 various workers adduced
additional examples from a snail a trout, and a lancelet. It is
now known that no such phenomenon exists.

Many examples like the foregoing will occur to you, in which
one clearly sees the influence of the preconceived idea.

The tendency is to observe what theory predicts, Mo&t of
us have a theoretical axe or two to grind, and the difficulty

40

SPOLIA ZEYLAKICA.

arises, not in the finding of facts which controvert our theory,
but in the perception of them. Once convince yourself of the
truth of any hypothesis and you receive a mental bias, by
means of which, albeit unconsciously, you correlate your
observations ^ith the inevitable result that they aie made to
fall in line with your preconceived ideas. You are led to
confuse theory with observation, and fact with inference,

A notable example of this curious visual distortion is to be
seen in the predelineation (or eoolutio) theory. This theory
maintained that the development of animal life was much the
same as the unfolding of a bud. The immature animal was
considered to exist in ioto jrithin the reproductive cell, which
merely required a certain stimulus to start its growth. This
theory was a product of the seventeenth century, and is
associated with the great names of Swammerdam, Malpighi,
and Leeuwenhoek.

Malpighi observed evidence of organization in an unincu-
bated egg in 1672 (during an Italian summer, be it noted).
Swammerdam had made observations of insects in a chrysalis
stage and of caterpillars about to enter the pupa condition,
in which he discerned the outlines of the organs of a future
state. Leeuwenhoek made the discovery (often wrongly
attributed to Hartsocker) cbout 1676 of fertiliziug filaments
in eggs. This led to a controversy as to whether the embryo
pro-existed in the egg or in the sperm. The egg was regarded
by some as a nidus, within which the sperm developed ; others
declared the ovum to carry the embryo, and regarded the
sperm as a stimulant for growth. Thus arose the rival schools
of animalculists and ovulists. The debate over the details of
the preformation theory gave way to the wildest speculations,
and some ingenious persons computed the number of eggs,
which must have been encased one within the other (tike a
Japanese juggler’s boxes), within the ovary of Mother Eve.
The astonishing answer to this remarkable problem in bio-
metrics was two hundred millions. Meanwhile Hartsoekor,
who was a confirmed animalcuUst, gave the world a drawing
of a spermatozoon , in which a little man was to be seen crouch-
ing with his knees tucked up under his chin, and Hartsoeker
seems actually to have believed that he had seen the little man.

INTEBPRBTATTON OF NATURE.

41

A friend of mine was undertaking some research on a group
of sponges some years ago. During this work he found it
necessary to dissolve the spicules in an acid, which at the same
time stained the thin film of animal matter coating them.
As the little calcareous rods finally disappeared in solution, a
black streak made its appearance on the microscope slide.
My friend deduced from this an axial canal lined with animal
matter — a common enough thing in the sponge world. It was
by Uttle more than chance that he eventually arrived at the
true explanation, i.e., that the outer film of animal matter
was elastic, and the black line left by the spicule when it passed
away was the contracted film, "fhe spicule had, in fact, no
axial canal at all.

Columbus had no ideas of a new continent when he sailed
westwards, and although he visited the West Indies on four
occasions, he died in the belief that he had discovered the
eastern coast of Asia.

The preconceived idea about evolution often blinds the
observer to another quite as logical interpretation of the facts.
To quote an example. You wiU recall how Lamarck and his
followers explained the lengthy neck of the giraffe on the
supposition — since substantiated by evidence — that the early
giraffes were short-necked, like other creatures, but circum-
stances necessitated their stretching for food, and the constant
straining of the neck resulted in the permanent lengthening
of that member, which, as it chanced to bo hereditary, was
handed down and added to by succeeding generations.

The followers of Darwin, of course, believed this interpre-
tation to be wrong, in so far as the starting of the variation
in length of neck from that of the normal was assumed by
Lamarck to be due to the mere process of stretching. The
Darwinians, as we all know, believed that the variation arose
somehow in the germ cells, from whicti the longer necked
giraffes originally sprang. But both the later Lamarckians
and Darwinians seem to have beheved that the long neck of
the giraffe was a necessary condition of the creature’s existence .
That if the necks had not been lengthened, the whole
race of giraffes would have become extinct by reason of
starvation.

6

6 ( 7)14

42

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Surely in this we see the influence of the preconceived idea.
Evolution was a new principle to science, and every one was
imbued with it one way or another. Here was an extra-
ordinary phenomenon in necks which called for explanation,
and the two alternatives were suggested as we have already
seen. Now, whether the original variation was due to the
acquirement of changes set up in the animals, or to some
spontaneous adventure of the germ cells, we need not discuss
here. Our point is that both parties agreed that the giraffe’s
long neck had a selective value of paramount importance to
its possessor, a belief which is strongly maintained to-day.

Subsequent discovery may show this theory to be right, but
that is quite beside the point, for, meanwhile, who will dare to
say that the ghaffe’s long neck is not an hereditary variation
of no particular selective value at all ? For, lot us remember,
the very exceptional nature of this organ should warn us that
we may be dealing with something which does not rightly
fall in line with our general interpretation of things. Again,
consider the consequences of the accepted theory. Inasmuch
as the necessity has been correlated with the want of vege-
tation on lower branches, it must follow that the once leafy
district, rendered leafless by the overcrowded population
(or some other condition), which caused the gradual destruction
of the low^er plants, must have witnessed the extinction of all
the larger members of the mammalian fauna save the wily
giraffe. We may, if we like, invent a story about the migra-
tion of other forms of life to other parts on the encroachment
of desert conditions, but then we have to explain why the
short-necked giraffes did not migrate as well, and we must
invent some cause, more potent for effect than starvation
itself, to satisfy us that the giraffes really did stay behind, and
when we have done this, what have we achieved ? Nothing
but pure invention. Interesting, I grant you, knd justifiable
enough as a speculation, and as such it should take its rightful
place in our scheme of the interpretation of things. It is
quite unjustified as a final conclusion. Is it not possible that
the length of neck of giraffe is a germinal variation of no
particular selective value, which may have become of value
to its possessor at a more defined period of its development ?

INTERPRETATtON OF NATURE.

43

What I mean is that, having grown a long neck in the forests,
the giraffe would then he able to wander off and to feed in places
barren of undergrowth, and, indeed, might take unrivalled
possession of the district. So, too, is it not possible that our
xerophytic plants which grow in dry (or very boggy) places
do so, not by reason of a vigorous eradication of the thirsty
ones, with the consequent survival of those whose wants were
small, but because requiring less they were able to migrate
to situations where competition was not so rife ?

In a word, does environment always select individuals,
and do not individuals sometimes select their environment ?
Does every persistent variation necessarily have a selected
value, or, indeed, a use ? Is there a reason why any hereditary
variation (saving a detrimental one) should not persist ?
Once we admit the probabiUty of such persistence, we must
greatly modify our conception of the genesis of species, as, no
doubt, many have already done.

But this preconception, of which we are all guilty, warps
our observation in another way. It often blinds us to excep-
tions, and the progress of science depends nowadays, not so
much on the propounding of great laws, as on the discovery of
exceptions to the mle. One tends, in the light of some
absorbing theory, to pass exceptions by, or to put off their
discussion till they can be made to fall in line with our pet
ideas. Indeed, we am often so bent on the discovery of facts,
which substantiate our views, that the small exceptions pass
unobserved by us, and need to be repeated many times before
thei r significance can be realized . In this connection let me pass
on to you Professor Bateson's words of counsel : “ Treasure
your exceptions ; when there are none the w^ork gets so dull
that no one cares to carry it further ; keep them always
uncovered and in sight. Exceptions are like the rough brick-
work of a growing building, which tells that there is more to
come, and shows where the next construction is to be.”

You have only to look back on the history of any branch of
science to see how valuable exceptions have been, and if you
think of it, perhaps, you will agree that the rule which has most
exceptions is, on the whole, likely to be the truest, and nearly
always has references to the most facts. The fewer the facts

44

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the easier it is to make a rule about them, or, to use an analogy
invented by the late Professor W. K. Clifford, it is simpler to
put a room in order when it contains little furniture than
when it contains much furniture. Or, again, if you have only
ten books you may classify them without trouble, bat to
adequately arrange a hbraiy of 10,000 books is a very different
matter. We should, therefore, not be content to accept the
perfect all-explaining theory without a thorough investiga-
tion of the facts to which it pertains ; in other words, be wary
of the obvious. Nothing could be more obvious than that the
sun goes round the earth, but for all that it does not.

There Ls still another pitfall in the path of natural history,
and that is the want of precise definition of scientific terms.
Thus, for example, the voluminous literature which has
appeared dealing with the inheritance of acquired characters
is to a large extent the result of the elasticity of the single
term “acquired.”

Herbert Spenser’s admirable phrase “functionally pro-
duced modifications ” had been, it would seem, lost sight of.

Then, again, much confusion has existed among biologists
whose interests were with questions of inheritance, owing to
the inability to perceive the difference between a statement
which applie.s to masses and a statement which applies to
individuals, and also to the want of distinction between a
statistical and a physiological law.

Progress has more than once been hindered by the want of
investigation of the common sense interpretation of things.
Thus, for a lengthy period every one was quite sure that bodies
of different weight, if dropped, would fall at different rates.
It stands to reason, of course, that if you drop a ball of iron
and a wooden door handle at the same moment from a point
of some elevation, the ball of iron will reach the bottom first ;
and that is what everybody thought till Galileo took the
trouble to drop a few articles from the top of the leaning tower
of Pisa, thereby proving everybody to be wrong.

Perhaps I cannot do better in this connection than to quote
that brilliant investigator, Mr. A. D. Darbishire. He says,
in conclusion to an argument, The difference between
expectation based ou this law (he is referring to a certain law

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION.

45

of hereditary) and the accurate knowledge of what actually

takes place is the same ak the difference between

common sense and science, and the same as the difference
between that which stands to reason and that which rests
on evidence.”

The progressive attitude in natural science is that of
scepticism, and most particularly should we guard against the
misuse of the preconceived idea. As a stimulus to further
work it is useful ; as a line of tentative investigation it is
invaluable ; but as a guiding principle in inquiry it is to be
heartily condcinned.

Generally, I think, we are more interested in proving our
theory right than in proving it wrong. Or, to state this
differently, our real object in studying natural phenomena
is often enough the pleasure of seeing how beautifully they fit
in to our interpretation of them, rather than the knowledge
of how our interpretation fits the facts.

Having made as good a theory as we can, we should
endeavour to disprove it, for then, indeed, are we aiming at
truth and not at romance.

B.— THE NATURE OE INTERPRETATION.

In the first part of my Paper I attempted to how that our
methods of studying Nature are sometimes open to the objec-
tion that, inasmuch as we may confuse description with
interpretation, we are liable to draw very wrong conclusions ;
that this is the result of the very human desire to prove our
point of view. Ideally, theory should not be trusted tiU all
the facts bearing upon it have been collected, and all the
exceptions to the apparent rule appreciated. We should
always be careful to see that we are not led into any looseness
of statement or ambiguity where technical terms are concerned.
We should always approach the problems of Nature with a
perfectly open mind, being ready at any moment to throw
over our most treasured theory in favour of another, or to
adapt it as may be necessary when occasion requires.

In this part of my Paper we shall endeavour to understand
what we are actually doing when we interpret Nature, and

46

SPOLIA'ZEYLANICA.

to what extent our methods and re^ ults justify the common
sense conclusion that we are gradually building up a true and
lasting picture of the universe to which we belong.

We have seen that description is often in error and theory
inadequate, and as even the great empirical laws of Nature
constantly require revision as knowledge advances, we cannot,
1 think, escape from the conclusion that much of our inter-
pretation is probably not right, and some of it certainly wTong ;
that none of it is final. We have not yet touched the absolute.

The question as to whether we ever can touch the absolute
is, perhaps, a metaphysical rather than a merely scientific one,
and we shall not deal with it at any length here ; but it is a
matter of importance for every student of Nature to inquire
whether or no his w^ork is tending towards this ideal end.
The question ai'ises, Does our w^ork as naturalists help us to
see deeper into Nature, or not ?

If you think of it you will see that a complete description
is an explanation, that when you have described everything
there is to describe about an object or a phenomenon there is
nothing more to be said about it. Interpretation, therefore, is
theoretical description. Now;^ the completeness of our descrip-
tion of an object varies directly as what may be called our

closeness ’’ to the object concerned. You cannot describe
the texture of a rock from a distance of half a mile ; indeed, a
petrologist will seldom allow you to name a rock until you
have [>eerccl into and through its component grains with a
microscope. That description really does mean the coming
into closer contact is to be seen in the fact that all descriptions
hark back to the ultra-microscopic, about which, unfortunately,
we can only reason and never see. If you attempt to explain
the formation of worlds, you are driven back to the contem-
plation of chemical atoms and ultimately to electrons, or
whatever is considered as the most primitive step in the
series at the time. The explanation of inheritance turns upon
the presence or absence of unit characters supposed to be
stored up in the chromosomes in some unknoum way. Even
the investigations of psychological phenomena w^hen carried
out to their legitimate lengths send you back to the minutige
of things, and so with all explanation. Wc describe till we

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION.

47

can see no more, and then, according to certain rules, we
invent. It is because of the necessity of invention that the
very useful httle interrogative “ Why ” comes into being.
Strictly speaking, there is no such question as Why ; the only
question to science is How. And I venture to think that were
complete description a possibihty to us, the question Why would
appear as meaningless as it really is. True interpretation,
then, is complete description, and the completeness of descrip-
tion is dependent on the closeness of contact. Now, the more
we interpret Nature on the true lines, the deeper may we he
said to see into phenomena. But to what extent can we
interpret on the true lines ? Consider that clock for one
moment. You can describe its actions from where you sit with
considerable ease ; you may calculate that the bigger hand
moves twelve times as fast as the smaller ; further investiga-
tions may show you that this 12 : 1 ratio is only approximate,
and that the clock is running slow, or fast, compared with
another clock, as the case may he. Then you might theorize
about the works of the clock, and attempt to decide why it
is that one hand moves faster than the other, hut if you really
wanted to discover how it worked, you would wait till the
librarian had gone out to lunch and take the clock to pieces ;
with luck you might succeed in reconstructing the clock
before the hbrarian returned ; in any case you would have
handled the various wheels and springs, and would be able
after vour careful study to describe just how the clock works,
and considered as a piece of mechanism you could describe it
perfectly. Now, this is because the mechanism of the clock
bears a certain definite relation to yourself in point of size, for
the reason that it is of human manufacture. But do we ever
see the mechanism of Nature ? Surely there is but one answer
to this question, and that is No ; most decidedly No.

In the case of the library clock we need not bother with
interpretation, for under favourable circumstances w^c can
examine its works and describe its workings in detail. Not
so with Nature. Nature has a special watcher for her clock,
who never by any chance goes out to tiffin. He sits under the
greater chronometer of the Universe, which was wound up at
the beginning of time, and goes on merrily ticking off the

48

SPOLIA ZEYLAKICA.

aeons of eternity, and displaying on its wonderful dial all that
ever was and is. But nobody can read all the strange figures
and signs of the great chronometer face, and a great deal of
study is required to understand any of them. If we would
know whether Mars is inhabited, or to what extent the prin-
ciple of relativity is applicable to gravitation, or anything else
about the Universe, we are answered by the rooted watcher in
those ominous words of Winifred Pryce, “Just look at the
clock.*’

All that we can see, and hear, and feel constitute the great
dial of Nature. The limit of human sensation is the ever-
present watcher, who prevents us from meddling with the
works. Improved instruments enable us to observe the dial
with greater ease than was formerly the case, and ha ve, indeed,
revealed hordes of previously unsuspected hieroglyphs upon it.
We are getting to know and read the clock more accurately as
days go on, and wc are better able as time proceeds to formulate
theories about the works. But, of course, formulating theories
about works is one thing, seeing and handling works is quite
another.

I would like at this point to call your attention to a diagram
invented by Mr. Darbishire to illustrate this position

IB P

Let E P represent the distance between the eye and the
phenomenon, when the latter is just so far away that it can
be merely perceived and nothing more, as 10 units of linear
measurement ; and E I between the eye and that part of the
brain which imagines (whatever it may be) 2 units. Tlie inter-
pretation of the clock (the real one in the library) consists
in decreasing the line E P by dividing it by 1,000, say. But
what about the interpretation of a natural phenomenon 1
Does it consist in the decrease of the length E P ? No ; it
consists in increasing it by the length of the line E 1. So that
whilst we think that the more w^e interpret a phenomenon the
more we are getting at close quarters with it, as a matter of
fact, the inverse relation is what really obtains. If we admit
that interpretation consists in going beyond the limits of our
vision, we have to admit that what we do on the other side of

NATTJKE OF INTERPRETATION.

49

that limit k not seeing, but imagining. And really it is tacitly
conceded that this is so. For when a particularly ingenious
theory which, we think, enables us to come into close quarters
with a phenomenon is brought forward, our praise is not for
the marvellousness of the mechanism discovered, but for the
ingenuity of the brain which conceived it. We praise Mendel,
not for the mechanism of segregation ; how could we ? We
have never seen it. We say, “ What intellect! ” and not
“ What works ! ” Moreover, it is easily proved that this is
so, for if interpretation really meant a making out of works,
there should be greater unanimity in the sphere of interpretation
than in that of description, because the closer we can look,
the more easily can we see. Thus, 1 think, we must admit that
there is all the diffoi*encc in the world between discovery of
the mechanism oi a human invention and the propounding of
a theory to account for a mechanism of Nature.

Inasmuch as our interpretation of Nature consists in in-
creasing the length of the line E P by the length of the line E I,
instead of shortening the line E P as in the case of our clock,
it follows that there must always be a theoretical doubt
concerning the correctness of our ultimate conclusions about
Nature. So long as we stick to observation we are safe enough,
but the moment we begin to explain things we find ourselves
on treacherous ground, and the most we can say about any bit
of Nature’s mechanism is, This is how it might work, and
fossihly how it does,''

It may be objected, of course, that although we never see
into Nature because the mechanism of phenomena is invisible
to us, yet we tan deduce the mechanism from its effects with
considerable accuracy, and the proof of our accuracy lies in
the fact that the application of our deductions to untried
circumstances has often proved satisfactory in every way.
Thus, Adams and Leverrier independently predicted the
existence of a new planet, and on pointing their telescopes to
that particular part of the heaven? where the planet was
calculated to be, they were rewarded, as we all know, by the
discovery of Neptune. Graham, reflecting on the consequences
of the theory of the polarization of light waves, predicted the
occurrence of certain optical effects within a crystal, and these

7 6 ( 7)14

50

SPOLU ZEYLANICA.

on investigation were found to exist. Tke observation of a
certain dark line in the sun's spectrum led Sir Norman (then
Mr.) Lockyer to predict the existence of a new element in the
sun’s atmosphere ; many years later another investigator
discovered that element (helium) on earth. These are among
the classical examples of scientific deduction.

First, it must be recollected that a: wrong theory is often
capable of extended application, and predicted consequences of
that theory may be fouiid to coincide with experience. The
theory of diminishing ancestral contributions is as old as the
human race itself, and has worked so well that no one thought
it necessary to call attention to the theory at all till the
twentieth century. It is now held by competent authorities
to be totally inadequate. Again, predictions were based on
Newton's corpuscular theory of light, and the truth of the
theory was held to he proved when these predictions were
verified. Nowadays the corpuscular theory is only of
historical interest.

There can be no kind of a question, of course, that the more
w^e investigate and theorize about Nature the more utilitarian
do our theories become, and the larger grows the field of fact
which they are capable of explaining.

In a word, the truer do they become from our own stand*
point. Thus, a theory ts true in proportion as it is applicable.
So that if we say that the electro -magnetic theory of light is
the true interpretation of certain manifestations, all we can
logically mean is that it is the most capable and comprehensive
gu^s at the mechanism of those manifestations which has, ,,up
to the present, been put forward. Whether there is or is not
anything behind visible Nature corresponding to our concep-
tion of ether waves is quite another question, and one to
which we cannot possibly give an absolutely definite answer.
We may think there is, or we may think there is not ; or, again,
we may express a philosophical doubt about it. At. the best
we can only guess at the mechanism of Nature : we can never
look into Nature and see its works.

It might be difficult to prove that there is anything behind
phenomena at all, but there is surely a very strong presumption
that there is something there *, indeed, in the absence of evidence

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION.

51

to the contrary, this presumption amounts almost to a cer-
tainty ; no one in practice doubts it for a moment. It does not
fall within the limits of this Paper, or within the ability of the
author, to discuss the supposed nature of things in the back of
beyond. Seeing, however, that there is at present no logical
escape from the conclusion that there is a back of beyond ”
in which things happen, and that some at least of those
happenings correspond in some sort of way with our inter-
pretation of them, we are tempted to ask whether there are
any grounds for supposing that all the happenings in the
unknown find expression in the material world, and if not, can
we conceive of any reason why they should not ?

To go hack for a moment to the tiieory of light. Physicists
interpret light as a certain kind of wave motion in a hypothetical
ether, while physiologists tell us that light is sensation of
which we are capable under certain conditions . Compounding
these two statements together we arrive at the important con-
clusion that there is a something which transmits vibratory
motion, that this motion excites the sensitive layer of the
retina, and is transmitted by the oj)tic nerve to the brain, where-
on the sensation of light is experienced. Investigations go to
show that only a very limited number of these vibrations are
capable of exciting the retina, and that the differences of
velocity, &c., which exist within those .small limits, produce in
the brain the different colour sensations known to ua. But
on the authority of evidence it is asserted that there are
wave vibrations of too high and too low a velocity to give us
the sensations of light, that the number of them is in all
probability enormous, as compared with the very few vibra-
tions which affect our eyes. A very similar case is made out
for the sensation of sound, only here the wave vibrations are
transmitted through matter, not through ether, and are of a
somewhat different nature. Further, we are told, again upon
evidence, that all our sensations reach us through the medium
of the nerves, and that the cause of sensation is in all cases
primarily wave motion of one kind or another, always very
limited in its range. Thus, to speak rather inaccurately, but
in a way which will be readily understood, it may be said that
there are sounds we never hear, tastes we never experience,

52

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

touch sensations we never know, and sights we never see.
And this because our susceptibility to wave vibrations are
so excessively limited. Suppose now our susceptibility be
suddenly increased ten-fold, the material world would be
instantly and miraculously changed beyond all recognition :
one cannot even guess what the new world would be like ;
we have not the faintest ide£t ; all that we do know is that the
universe would be grander and fuller in every sense of the
words than it is even now, and our conceptions of Nature’s
mechanism would be absolutely changed. But there is no
reason to suppose that the limit of the theoretically knowable
is to be reached by multiplying all that is known by so low a
number as 10 ; indeed, I think moat of us feel that the theoreti-
cally knowable is out of all proportion to the known. The
relation of a pimple to a mountain is probably a very inade-
quate comparison in this connection.

What, then, is the conclusion we must draw from the accepted
facts of natural science ? Why, surely, this. Our universe
exists by virtue of the limits of our senses. The world, as we
know it, is the world of man created by man, not of* his own
desire, but in response to some other power than the human
will. But it will be objected : you first set out to show that
our scientific theories are at best guesses at the truth, and yet
you do not hesitate to found a very vital conclusion upon
them. My answer is that we have arrived at this conclusion
from a perusal of the wave' theory, and, so far as our ultimate
conclusion is concerned, it does not matter one jot whether the
wave theory is the true interpretation of phenomena or not.
The point is that if we believe, as I think we are justified in
believing, that there is something in the back of beyond which
somehow corresponds to our interpretation of it, then we see
that, whatever that something is, it is the starting point of our
sensations ; and our want of receptibility to this same some-
thing defines a limit to our experience. We have arrived, then,
at the assumption that there ig some definite correspondence
between the phenomena of Nature as observed by us, and the
mechanisnj of Nature which is supposed to lie behind those
phenomena. We shall be agreed, I think, that this assump-
tion is not illogical or unjustified, and that working out the

nature of interpretation.

53

consequences of this assumption in a logical manner we may
arrive at a theory about the natural world which, if somewhat
astonishing, is capable of abolishing many difficulties ; for
instance, in the light of it, we need not ask where Is reality,
what is truth ? We need not be sceptical, as some of our con-
temporaries are, concerning the existence of other things than
mind, and if we follow its consequences still further, we may
find this theory still more adequate. But, as I said in the
first part of my Paper, we should not accept the perfect all-
explaining theory without a thorough investigation of the
facts to which it pertains. These are the facts which we as
members of the Ceylon Natural History Society are particularly
interested. It has not been my object to construct from these
a pretty conclusion for your amu.semeut, but to suggest what
appear to me reasonable lines of procedure, and to point out
where these same lines may possibly lead you.

54

sfolia zeylanica.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS
IN CEYLON.

By C. Hartley, M.A.,

Principal, of the Royal College, Colombo.

I N a Paper read before the Ceylon Natural History Society
in May, 1913, I gave a brief account of the stone imple-
ments of Ceylon, in which I reserved consideration of the
so-called pigmy implements for a later occasion. The study
of the Stone Age in this country is itself of recent date, and
the identification of pigmies was not completed until the year
1912. Before that date however the Doctors Sarasin in
their excellent work “ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon,” published
in 1908, had illustrated several stones for which they suggested
tentatively a pigmy or (as named on the Continent) a Tarde-
noisian origin ; and the late Mr. John Pole had in his collection
some sixty specimens, now in the Colombo Museum, which
he was unfortunately unable to identify.

My own acquaintance woth pigmy implements was until
recently almost non-existent ; but having found a few stones
in Ceylon which strongly reminded me of what I had seen in
England, I sent a few in 1912 to the Rev. R. A. Gatty, who
has collected very large numbers of them in Lincolnshire, and
who, until his lamented death in March of this year, was one
of the authorities on the subject. He replied that my
specimens were undoubtedly pigmies, and prophesied that
they would shortly be discovered in considerable quantities,
a prediction which was abundantly verified the next year.

To begin with a short survey of the pigmy question in
other lands, I may say that there is no division of the stone -age
manufacture which presents so many problems still unsolved.
It is only in comparatively recent years that attention has
been directed to these minute and puzzling objects, which
had previously escaped notice ])y reason of their insignificant

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 55

dimensions. In the course however of the last thirty years
a number of spots have been discovered in widely separated
lands where these implements occur, sometimes in very large
numbers and in almost precisely similar forms and sizes.
From a recent publication by the Lancashire and Cheshire
Antiquarian Society I learn that pigmies have been discovered
at ten places at least in the British Isles, at several in France
and Belgium, in Southern Spain, in North and South Africa,
and in two localities in India, namely, Banda District and
the Vindhya HiUs. I have also seen illustrations of them
as occurring in Australia, and I have in my own collection
about sixty specimens which were sent to me by a friend
from Uganda. It is probable that, as the eyes of antiquaries
grow more accustomed to these minute objects, they will be
found aU over the world, though possibly in stations widely
separated from each other. As regards the localities where
they occur, in Great Britain they are often discovered in
sandy and desolate spots, hut have also been found on high
ground in Lancashire under ten feet of peat and on the sea-
shore at Hastings in heaps of prehistoric refuse known as
kitchen middens. In France and Belgium, besides being
found on the surface, they have been brought to light in
caves ; and by their position it has been proved that they
belong to the end of the palseohthic or the beginning of the
neolithic period.

It must not however be too hastily assumed that all pigmy
implements are to be assigned to the same date. They
probably represent a stage of progress which most or all races
passed through ; and it is almost self-evident that the more
backward nations were living under palseoUthic conditions for
long periods after the more intelligent had attained to the
neolithic stage ; and I would remind you that even to-day
the Australian savage breaks up beer bottles and telegraph
insulators to manufacture hts primitive spear heads.

Nor is it at aU necessary to assume that pigmy implements
imply a diminutive race. If ever we reach a complete under-
standing of the uses to which these siugiilar instruments were
put, we shall probably find that they were capable of employ-
ment by full-sized human- beings. Lastly, it is unnecessary to

56

SpOIiU ZBYLANICA.

suppose that similarity of implements proves identity of race.
Stone tools from all parts of the world offer a general similarity
of types ; and it is likely that the invention of a new and
serviceable implement would be communicated gradually to
all accessible quarters of the world, or that the same type
would be independently evolved to meet a similar need.

With regard to the types of the pigmy tools discovered in
so many and distant parts of the world, it is remarkable how
closely they resemble each other both in size and in form,
whether the material be flint as in Burope, jasper and chal-
cedony as in India, obsidian as in Uganda, or quartz as in
Ceylon. In all lands there are four main types of them : —

(1) The crescentic, which is curved and moon-shaped.

(2) The angular, which takes the form of an equilateral or

scalene triangle.

(3) The pointed, which is generally long and slightly

curved.

(4) The rhomboidal, or four-sided, which seems to be

almost unknown in Ceylon, and which I believe to be

a variation of the crescentic.

In addition, there are found other and universally known
types, such as the round and hollow scraper, the blade, the
chisel, and the arrowhead ; but these are almost invariably
to be distinguished from the parallel neolithic series by their
extreme smallness,

A very large number of guesses have been made at the uses
to which the so-called geometric patterns may have been
applied.

It has been suggested that they are arrowheads ; single
barbs of spears, harpoons, and arrows ; fishhooks ; tattooing
and surgical instruments ; teeth of multiple scrapers,
carders, saws, or sickles ; scrapers ; borers ; blades, and even
ornaments. I may confess at once that I for my part have
not penetrated the mystery. I can see many uses to which
some of them may have been put. I thought at one time
that the crescentic or lunate type might have been used as an
arrowhead mounted obliquely and presenting a single barb ;
but I cannot solve the problem how they should be fixed in

‘ OCCURBENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 57

the arrow shaft. I have numerous lunates which could not
possibly be so mounted ; and I have found a number of
normal arrowheads, exceedingly small, mingled with the
pigmy specimens below the surface. I think that several
types, including the lunate, may have been used as hooks,
not for fish only, but for birds. In Bandarawela, where the
great bulk of my specimens were found, it is well known that
fish are scarce and small. In England at the present day it
is a common poacher’s trick to take pheasants on a hook
baited with beans ; and I have seen a statement in Charles
Kingsley’s works that deer used once to be caught in the
New Forest with an apple suspended on a hook. I believe
that no certainty will be attained until cither we find some
backward race using similar tools, or until more or less com>
plete sets are found in cavas with their shafts or mountings
intact. I do not despair of such a discovery being made in
Ceylon, where there are innumerable caves awaiting explo-
ration.

I proceed now to give an account of my own researches.
At the beginning of 1913 I had accumulated about a dozen
pigmies ’from various widely separated hill districts. In
April of that year I rented a house on the top of the main
ridge overlooking Bandarawela, which for want of a better
name I have called Bungalow Hill. As ail my Ceylon readers
know, Bandarawela is a small inland town at an elev^atioii of
4,000 feet, situated, in a grassy, undulating country, entirely
free from continuous jungle, with a soil composed of gneiss,
quartz, and felspar, generally decomposed. Outcrops of
hard rock are scarce, and it is certain from my investigations
that the bulk of the material used for implements, whether
of pigmy or neolithic type, consisted of brook pebbles, which
were carried to the hilltops and there broken up. On
examining the hill on which I lived, I found at once a large
, number of pigmy implements scattered on the surface ; and
in the course of a few weeks I visited every hilltop within a
« radius of several miles, finding plentiful neolithic remains on
the surface and occasional pigmies. It was however only on
four hills, all in the immediate neighbourhood of the town,
that I discovered pigmies in profusion. On three of the four

8 6(7)14

58

SPOLIA. ZEYLANICA.

pigniie? of all types and sizes have been found ; on the fourth
none but large and massive specimens, usually lunate. The
material of all the specimens but three was quartz, generally
white or clouded for the larger, transparent for the smaller.
The three exceptions were of chert, one lunate, one angular,
(apparently an arrowhead), one pointed. Having collected
several h\indrcd specimens from the surface, I procured a
“■mamoty’’ and a quarter-inch sieve and proceeded to dig.
After a few trials I found that the hill which I have named
Church Hill was incomparably the richest. It is a ridge
some 300 yards long, rising steeply on all sides, branching
into several minor spurs, and separated from Bungalow Hill
by a deep and narrow valley. The Doctors Sarasin examined
this spot, illustrated it with a photograph, and alluded to the
great quantity of neolithic remains on its surface ; hut they
unluckily overlooked the numerous pigmy specimens which
abounded on it when I first examined it. I have found
pigmies on all parts of its topmost ridge, but the only portion
which yielded good results to digging was a level saddle
between the two highest points running roughly from south-
west to north-east. It is certain that a considerable manu-
factory of pigmies existed here, although there is no material
available near the spot ; and the whole remains were most
fortunately covered with a capping of earth varying in thick-
ness from an inch or tw'o in the centre to six or eight inches
a few- yards away. Mr. E. J. Way land, of the Mineralogical
Sxirvey, ha.s kindly reported on this eartli cap, and he informs
me that without any doubt it is composed of the rocks decaying
in situ, and has been deposited over the remains by the
labours of worms, ants, and other insects. In the course of
the months of April, 1913 and 1914, 1 excavated an area
ninety-three feet long, with an average of about fifteen feet
in width to a depth of six or eight inches, passed it all through
the sieve and afterwards through my lingers. The work was
extremely severe, but my gains were in proportion ; in 1913,
with the invaluable assistance of two Tamil servants, 1 secured
from all quarters 3,687 specimens ; in 1914, when the richest
area had already been denuded, I had to be content with
1,081. These figures constitute easily a world’s record in

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 5^)

quantity, and the implements, I believe, furnish another in
quality ; for I have in my collection stones of a beauty of
workmanship and material such as I have never heard of
elsewhere.

It was a disappointment to me that no remains were
discoverable except the imperishable quartz and chert. I
found no pottery, bone, horn, ivory, or wood, except innumer-
able fragments of charcoal from ancient camp fires. The
last has however some significance, as proving that these
ancient hunters, who were almost certainly the ancestors of
our Veddas, were acquainted with fire ; and in addition it
seems to me to indicate that their remains are not of a very
remote date, for otherwise the charcoal embedded in porous
soil would have been absorbed and have left no trace behind.
The freshness of the material and workmanship also points to
a period which may be described as neolithic rather than
palaeolithic, in so far as these words have any meaning in
Ceylon. The cap of earth overlying the remains was a stiff,
reddish, sandy loam, retentive of moisture and free from
stones ; very occasionally it contained a chip of quartz or a
fragment of charcoal. Beneath it extended the layer of
chips, implements, and charcoal, rarely exceeding two inches
in thickness and mixed with coamer grit and gravel which
the insects and worms had failed to eject. The fragments of
quartz are frequently spotted with a deposit of iron oxide,
which can only be removed by scraping with a knife. Under
the chips came undisturbed yellowish decayed gneiss of which
the body of the hill is composed. The richest deposits of
implements were always nearest the top, where I have recovered
as many a? eighty in a day, though the thickest layer of chips
was generally a little way down the hill. Of the two slopes,
the eastward was very much more prolific tlian the westward,
and had a thicker coating of earth. The deposit was termi-
nated on the ridge at the north-eastern end by an outciop
of gneiss, at the south -western by a gradual rise, where
the layer became thinner and ran out in ban(h) till it ended
altogether.

I have dealt at some length with the Church Hill, because
it was by far the richest ground examined ; but the other

60

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

three elevations yielded their hundreds, where the Church
Hill gave its thousands. The most important of these is the
Bungalow Hill, a ridge of about half a mile in length, somewhat
higher than Church Hill, which it overlooks at its western end,
and embracing . cvcral rounded eminences and spurs. I found
specimens both on and below the surface on all the crests and
ridges, but in greatest number on a gently rounded elevation
about a hundred yards south-east of the highest point. There
is unluckily no earth cap at this spot, though the two highest
crests are well covered.

The third hill, which 1 have named Dhoby Hillock, is an
almost imperceptible knoll, overlooked by Church Hill, on the
Ettampitiya path. It is not above fifty yards long, but has
yielded a very large quantity of pigmies, all from the surface,
as it has no earth cap.

The fourth and last, which I have named Ambalam Hill,
lies on the eastern side of the path leading from the
“ ambalam,” or travellers’ shelter, on the Welimada road, and
is parallel to the burial ground close to the w^estern flank of
Church HiU. It has no earth cap, but I recovered a number
of pigmies from pockets of detritus along its eastern side.
The specimens were not numerous, and were all large and
solid.

I am quite unable to suggest reasons for these four hills being
selected as manufactories in preference to any others in the
neighbourhood. None of them contain material in any shape.
All have access to water, but are at least two miles from, and
at a considerable height above, a fishable stream. The first
two are large, commanding, and defensible ; the last two are
insignificant in size and overlooked by higher elevations. The
conditions of the four are so mutually contradictory, that I
incline to believe that the occupants changed their ground
according to seasonal or other vicissitudes.

As regards the remains discovered by me, I have divided
them into eighteen types, of which I annex a table later
giving the numbers of each found by me in 1914. In the
case of the much more numerous finds of 1913, I regret that
I omitted to keep a census. Before discussing the types in
detail, I desire to call attention to the very important difference

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 61

which exists between the chipping of the pigmies and that of
other implements. In the case of the latter, the object of
chipping is to shape the tool and to give it a sharp edge or
point ; in the case of the former the object is, after shaping
the tool, to blunt the part so treated and to do away with its
sharpness. With pigmies, in fact, the sharp edge or point is
the part left untrimmed, and the chipping on the back is at
right angles to the plane of the implement and so totally
destmetive of an edge. I have however noted in the table
that ten per cent, of the total of pigmies from Bandarawela
have had their cutting edges trimmed, sometimes to secure a
symmetrical shape, sometimes apparently to obviate sharpness
on both sides alike. This work occurs only in seven of the
types, and is far the commonest in the case of curved and
straight points. I have also noted that in six types there is
no edge at all, what corresponefe to the edge in similar tools
being square and solid. Again, it will be observed that the
proportion of square -edged implements is high in curved
points. I regard this as significant, because the curved points
are very suitable for use as hooks or throttles ; and it is
obvious that a hook without a cutting edge is less likely to be
tom out than a sharp one. I may mention incidentally that
throttles of wood are used in Ceylon to the present day for
catching crocodiles.

I divide my finds into the following types : —

(1) Crescentic or Lunate vary in length from one inch
and a quarter to five -sixteenths of an inch, in breadth from
half an inch to less than one-eighth, and in thickness from
seven to little more than one-sixteenth. They present an
infinity of sub -types, long and short, broad and narrow, thin
and thick. They are carefully trimmed the whole way along
the back.

(2) Semi -Lunate resemble the above in all particulars of
length, breadth, and thickness, except that their butts are
left untrimmed, possibly with a view to hafting. They very
frequently contain the bulb of percussion.

(3) Irregular have general affinities with lunates, but
show extraordinary diversities of outline. The sharp edges
are often concave.

62

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(4) Rhomboidal appear to be lunatca with the curved
back truncated. I possess only three ; two from Bandarawela,
one from Dolosbage.

(5) Akgulak are often equilateral, but are sometimes
constituted by a straight sharp edge and two curves meeting
at a point. The scalene form, which is so common in Europe,
appears to be entirely wanting in Ceylon.

(6) D-shaped vary in length from seven-eighths to httle
more than a quarter of an inch. They are akin to semi-
lunate, but are broad and squat and solid. They often
contain the bulb.

(7) Beaked are of two types : the one for upward move-
ments, the other for downward. In some cases the butt
appears to have been trimmed for hafting.

(8) CuKVED Points, the most numerous of all types, vary
in length from three-quarters to five -sixteenths of an inch.
They are generally solid and are fashioned with exquisite
skiU. The butt is generally neglected.

(9) Straight Points seem to be a variety of the preceding.

(10) Drill Points (figures 890, 891, 892, 893, 900, 901,
1503) ; Professor Henry Balfour, of the Pitt Rivers Museum,
Oxford, has suggested to me the identification of these
implements. They are straight and roughly rectangular in
section. None were brought to light in 1914. The first six
were found in 1913, four below and two on the surface ; the
seventh was found on the surface at Hatton.

(11) Borers are generally triangular and thin. The work
iu which they were employed must have been very dehcate.
Almost every one which I possess would infallibly splinter if
applied to wood or bone.

(12) Arrowheads are generally of irregular lozenge shape
with truncated base. They vary in length between eleven-
sixteenths and three-eighths of an inch. Their diminution
in breadth towards the butt does not amount to notching,
but was intended no doubt to faciUtate their insertion in
the shaft. No. 1,386 is so far unique in Ceylon, displaying
one well-developed barb, but no stem.

(13) Blades are flakes of crystal blunted by characteristic
chipping along the back and with untrimmed convex edge.

OCOtTERBNCE OF PIOMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 63

(14) Chisels differ only in size from neolithic patterns.

(15) Hollow Scrapers are scarce, and some show very
small a})ertures.

(16) Round Scrapers are plentiful, as always. They are
generally smaller than neolithic patterns, my minutest specimen
measuring three-eighths by one-quarter of an inch. This year
however I recovered one from below the surface measuring
one inch and three-quarters by one inch and five-sixteenths.
This is an unusually large scraper for Ceylon, even among
neoUths.

(17) Rounded Pebbles of Quartz, used as hammer stones,
are smaller than those usually found among neolithic remains,
where they are exceptionally plentiful in many sizes.

(18) Rounded Pebbles of Gneiss are found not uncom-
mon! v in all sizes among neolithic remains on hilltops, where
they could not possibly have been deposited by natural
causes. They are often in an advanced stage of disintegration
and rarely show signs of use. Besides the five recovered in
Bandarawela this year, I have previously found three speci-
mens in a cave many feet below the surface associated with
neolithic remaiiLs, Two were large anrl showed no traces of
use ; the other wa.s small and had lost both ends either by
hammering or by attrition. 1 think that either they were
used as rubbers, or that their softer material recommended
them as hammers for delicate work. The five recovered this
year were all small and two of them w^ere lying side by side.

In completion of my statement I must make mention of the
immense quantities of chert fragments Avhich are associated
with the pigmies, sometimes in the form of rude blocks,
sometimes in delicate chips and splinters. The material is
not known to exist in situ, but isolated boulders are found
in many parts of the Island, and rounded pebbles of chert
occur not uncommonly in streams. In view how^ever of the
extreme rarity of chert implements of all patterns, it is
impossible at present to account for the abundance of this
rock among remains both of pigmy and neolithic t 3 "pe. It is
conceivable that it was used for striking sparks from iron
pyrites, w^hich is found in parts of Geylon, though I have not
met with it in stone-age stations. The modern Veddas are

64

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

acquainted with the mode of producing sparks from chert and
steel, but their usual method of procuring fire is by means of
the bow drill.

It will be observed that the list of implements discloses
some remarkable omissions. Nothing resembling an axe
has ever been found in Ceylon. There was besides no chopper
or heavy blade, no spearhead, saw, punch, or fabricator,
though the two last may have once existed in bone or horn.
There were no sling stones or throwing disks, nor any sign of
potboilers. It is probable that the earth cap has preserved
for us the complete armoury of this ancient race in so far as
it was composed of imperishable materials ; and it is surprising
to find so total an absence of formidable weapons in a land
which must have abounded with elephants, bears, leopards,
and buffaloes, and in an age when these had probably little
terror of man. It may be conjectured cither that the insigni-
ficant pigmies are the disjecta membra of some weapon of
power, or that their makers maintained an inglorious existence
by preying upon the lesser creatures and trusting to flight
from the formidable. The latter supposition receives some
support from the researches of the Doctors Sarasin in the
Nilgala cave, in which they found only the scantiest remains
of buffalo, pig, and bear, nothing of elephant or leopard, very
abundant snail shells, and a moderate quantity of deer and
monkey. In my own excavation of a cave near Balangoda,
brides innumerable snail shells, I could only identify bones
of monkey and mouse deer. In neither cave were remains
found of snakes, fishes, or birds, although the Veddas eat the
two last, while they are said to reject the first. The same
absence of large and aggressive weapons was noticeable in the
caves so far explored. The few bone and horn implements
recovered pointed to peaceful rather than destructive uses,
and give no warrant for believing that an armoury of lethal
weapons of perishable material has been absorbed in the soil
of Bandarawela. The situation must therefore be faced that
this race relied for their existence, in the midst of powerful
and ferocious beasts, on a bandful of pointed fragments of
quartz, whose purpose is still an enigma to all inqubers.
Fire was no doubt a great protection, and the poisons with

OCCURREl^CB OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 65

which Ceylon abounds may have contributed their share to
human security ; but the leopard, the bear, the Mold boar,
and the buffalo even at the present day demand short and
sharp measures instantly and forcefully applied, nor can
immunity be obtained by flight, concealment, or avoidance.
The Vedda of to-day, in spite of occasional catastrophes,
relics with good reason for his safety upon his powerful bow
and steel axe. His predecessors could hardly have maintained
themselves without a weapon for combats at close quarters
in addition to the light arrow^s evidenced by the absurdly
diminutive arrowheads discovered beneath the soil ; and iji
my opinion circumstances demand the supposition of spears
and perhaps weightier arrow shafts, of which some pigmy
types may have formed the barbs.

In conclusion I Avill add a few^ remarks on the question
whether pigmy and neolithic t;sq)es ^cere simultaneously used
by the same race, a theory which was strongly combated by
the late Mr. Gatty. In Ceylon, wherever I have found pigmy
specimens on the surface, I have also found neoliths, though
the converse by no means holds. On certain hills however
near Nawalapitiya, where both types are found associated, I
noted several specimens of pigmies, Avhich by their w orn and
frosted appearance seemed to postulate a greater antiquity
than the neoliths. T have not observed this contrast else-
where, and as an isolated fact it may he accidental. I held
till recently the opinion that the two types were coeval, and
in digging at Bandarawela below^ surfaces richly strewm with
pigmies and neoliths, I expected to find confirmation of my
view. I am obliged to confess that I have not done so. In
all cases where identical types of implements from above and
below the surface can be compared, there is no question that
the former is on an average considerably larger than the
latter. The only marked exception is the large round scraper
from the pigmy layer already alluded to. I also picked up
on the surface of Bungalow^ Hill a single arrow'head ; it is
significant that this differs, not only in size, but in type
from any recovered from below ground. I do not attempt
at present to draw^ any hard and fast conclusion ; but the
evidence before me inclines mo now to believe that the tw^o
9 6 ( 7)14

SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

types are separated in time. If ever this supposition proves
to be correct, it will be time to consider whether their makers
were or were not of the same race, for which there is at present
no evidence available.

Besides the great deposits at Bandarawela, pigmies have
now been found sparingly in the following localities, all of
which are in the hill country : — Diyatalawa ; Haputale ;
Pattipola ; the Horton Plains ; Killamulle and Kurundu-oya
estates in Maturata ; Strathdon and Vellai-oya estates in
Hatton ; several estates in Maskeliya by Mr. Pole ; Honside,
Hindford, and St. Clive estates in Nawalapitiya ; Kellie Group
in Dolosbage ; Ulapane estate ; Kalugama estate in Peradeniya ;
Garapolawatta estate in Gampola ; Katugastota river bank ;
Wiltshire estate in Matale. I anticipate that with a little search
they will come to light in all parts of the Island, and that
here and there great manufactories will be discovered, similar
to the one at Bandaraw^ela. I suspect the existence of one
such close to the resthouse on the Horton Plains (7,200 feet),
where Mr. Cassie has already picked up several pigmies on
the surface, but which I have not had time to explore. The
most important work to be done now is the excavation of
caves, to which I hope to turn my attention before long.

I annex a table of pigmy types found by me at Bandarawela

in

1914

Types,

Sharp-

edged.

Square-

edged.

Trimmed-

edged.

Total.

1.

Lunate

240 . .

6 . ,

12

264

2.

Semi-lunate

167 . .

9 . .

12 ,,

183

3.

Irregular

11 ..

0 ..

0 ..

11

4.

Rhomboidal

1 . .

0 . .

0 . .

1

5.

Angular

47 . ,

0 ..

5 . .

52

6.

D -shaped

()0 . .

7 ..

\\ . .

78

7.

Beaked

13 ..

3

1 . .

17

'8.

Curved Points

, , 257 . .

25 ..

40 . .

322

9.

Straight Points

18 ..

1 . .

14 . .

33

10.

Drill Points

0 ..

0

0 ..

0

Blanks

6 ..

0 . .

0 ..

6

Uncertain

32 . .

7 . .

« . .

46

858

69

101

1,017

SCO ^03 523 23} 2/} <35J 5/S 5/6 /3S8

Sf8 6/0 /o/j b2k i>^3 ^0/// 660 hSt 6/^8

^6/ pi /m ^3} fe3 96/^ f2)0

8/5 82Z 823 82i> ' 838 8Sf^b 853 863 H) 8^8 fUi>f 9^3

mk >03^ /03j /03^ /0/3

/0i>3 lOioii lOioS lObfi iOb) lO'jl

OGCUltRENCE OP PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 67

Sharp- ; Square- Trimmed- „ * >
TyP“- edged, edged. edged.

11. Borers — *. — > .. 3

12. Arrowheads . . — ■ . . ^ - — . . 8

13. Blades * • — • - — . . — - . 4

14. Chisels ♦. — •• — .. — .. 2

15. Hollow Scrapers • . — . . — . . — . . 2

16. Round Scrapers • . — . . — . . • — , . 38

17. Quartz Pebbles .. — .. — — 2

18. Gneiss Pebbles . . — ■ . . — . . — 5

Total — — — 1,081

N.B. — Bevelled edges, which are fairly common, arc reckoned as
sharp.

Notes to the Illustrations.

1. I have rejected photographic reproduction, because I
have seen that this process applied to quartz specimens is
inadequate to rende^ detail. For confirmation see Dr.
Saraein’s “Steinzeit auf Ceylon.”

2. The figures attached to my Paper have been drawn with
the utmost care by Mr. G. M. Henry of the Colombo Museum,
to whom my best thanks are due. The stones are so far
accurately reproduced in their natural size that an implement
laid upon the drawing exactly covers it. It will be at once
perceived that this system implies an unavoidable incorrectness,
inasmuch as the thickness of the stone, sketched in by eye,
encroaches upon and so diminishes its actual breadth. I have
thought it better to put up with this designed inaccuracy than
to conceal the back from view altogether. Considerations of
space and labour preclude us from presenting each stone under
four aspects,

3. The last specimens figured, viz., Nos. 880 to 922, are
not from Ceylon, nor are they of quartz, but are of obsidian
from Uganda. They are inserted here partly for purposes ot
comparison, partly because, as far as I am aware, no similar
specimens have yet been described.

C. H.

68

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

REVIEW.

Some South Indian Insects.*

We have just received from Mr. T. B- Chadwick, Director of
the Madras Agricultural Department, a copy of an interesting
volume by Mr. T. Dainbrigge Fletcher, R.N. (late of IL M.
Survey Ship “ Sealark ”), F.L.S., F.E.S., F.Z.S., Imperial
Entomologist to the Government of India, and formerly
Government Entomologist, Madras, entitled Some South
Indian Insects and other Animals of importance considered
especially from an economic x^oint of view,” which has been
issued by the Madras Government Press. The author
distinctly states that the volume has no pretensions to the
assumption of any status as a text book, and does not pretend
to do much more th^.n provide a narrow and tortuous entrance
into the vast and almost untrodden field of insect life in
South India. However modest the writer himself may be in
this direction, we are sure that any one who peruses even
casually the 564 pages of the work will agree that it is much
more than the retiring author ^vould have us believe. In
addition to a large amount of information, no less than fift}-
splendidly coloured plates are provided, which have been
prepared from the original drawings at the Agricultural
Research Institute, Pusa. Most of these have been published
before, and it is to this fact that so large a ninnbcr of coloured
plates are included in a book costing only six rupees, which
figure is not the least of the surprises in the way of good
value x>rovided. The preliminary chapters give a general
account of the structure, habits, &e., of insects and insect
pests, which are necessarily brief, and, as the author says,
incomplete, as any one of these might be expanded into a

* “Horne Houth Indiuu .bis(3<as,” by T. liuiiibrigge Ploteher, R.N,,
F.L.H., F.E.fS,, P.Z.S., Imperial Kritoinologist to tlio Government of
India; 8vo., Superintendent of t)ie Government Press, Madras, 1914.

REVIEW.

whole volume by itself ; while the various aspects of ento-
mology that have been omitted would form a companion
series of tomes. The arrangement and information given,
however, is such as will commend itself to a large number of
readers who delve into such works for the purpose of gaining
concise knowledge on the subjects in which they are interested,
and knowledge which can readily be assimilated. In the
succeeding and main portion of the book some of the more
important insects are considered, each being treated under
the head of references, distribution in South India, life history,
food plants, status from an economic point of view% and
control. Under the first heading the S 3 nionyms, which will
generally appeal only to entomologists, are limited to the
original description and the more important or accessible
references. Under the last heading only such control methods
are usually given as are generally efficacious, special methods
being often applicable to local conditions. In some cases
where no effective method has yet been found, the information
under this head is left blank or represented by a query mark.
Turning to the list of crop pests, Mr. Fletcher says that it is
not complete, and it must be understood that it cannot be
complete for very many years, if ever. Every month new
pests come to light, many of them altogether unknown by
name, and our knowledge of old pests is augmented. In
addition to the fine coloured plates already mentioned, no less
than 440 text figures are included, while the indexing is also
very complete. Nothing but praise can bo found for the
work. As Mr. Fletcher says in his Preface, to any in search
of a distraxition or a hobby, either to fill an idle hour or to
provido a welcome change of thought and occupation, the
study of insects may well he commended. Insects are always
with us, day and night, in the bungalow, at the office, or in
camp, and the field for observation of life histories and habit,
even of the commonest species, is absolutely boundless. If
this book, he remarks, lends aid to any whose tastes lie in
this direction, its aim will have been achieved. A brief
glance at the book is sufficient to prove the attractiveness of
the study, and the work itself follows just the right lines to
attract attention to this absorbing subject, giving, as it does.

70

SFOLIA ZKYLANICA.

just what is wanted, leaving alone much befogging matter and
detail, and allowing the amateur entomologist that scope for
individual effort and investigation which is necessary to
promote increasing interest in any study.

The cover bears a representation of one of the most striking
of South Indian Msntids, the Gov^ylus, often seen in Ceybn,
with its attenuated thorax and vivid green or brown colouring,
in characteristic attitude when at rest among foliage. The
volume contains much that is of interest and applicable to
Ceylon, and its fine get-up makes it a most desirable acquisition,
while its cheap price— it is only six rupees— brings it within
the reach of all who are likely to be attracted to Entomology.
Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher deserves the sincerest congratulations
on the excellent volume he has produced. Messrs. A. M. &
J. Ferguson act as agents in Colombo for the Madras Govern-
ment Press, and orders can be received at the Ceylon Observe?
office for copies.— Observer, October 10, 1914.

NOTES.

71

NOTES.

Microdon, sp. — Several larvae of this genus of Syrphidae were
found on Eugenia sp., in a nest of the ant Crermstogaster sp.,
along with a colony of Lecanium 'psidii,- Gr. Except for their
peculiar colour — they are bluish-green — and for the fact that
they may be seen moving about, one might mistake them
for a species of Lecanium. They are slightly convex, are
surrounded by a fringe, and in a position corresponding to that
of the anal plates of a Lecanium is a dark brown, conical process.
Each larva is about 5 mm. by i mm,, oval, broadly rounded
posteriorly, and narrower anteriorly. The head is usually
retracted underneath the prothorax. When protruded it is
seen to bear a forked process, each fork bearing two or three
stout setae at the apex . When treated with KOH and mounted
in Canada balsam the following details can be made out.
The body is studded with circular glands. The fringe is seen
to consist of a series of long feather -like processes, and shorter,
more hyaline processes arranged alternately ; these arise from
the crenulated margin of the body. The margin of the
(sligmatic ?) process that corresponds in position to the anal
plates of a Lecaniid is crenulate, the cotivexities of the
crenulations being towards the centre of the process. The
cephalic process ends in two finger-like bodies, one of which
suddenly narrows about its middle length and bears a small
spine at that point. The mandibles are large. Each is oval,
and bears on its proximal half large, triangular, backwardly-
pointing teeth, and on its distal half much smaller teeth.

I am unable to say on what they were feeding. The
character of the mandibles suggests that it might be the scales.
One cannot imagine them catching the ants ! In confinement
they refused to feed, and died.

In the Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. II., Pt. I.,
Brunetti describes under the name of Microdon auricinctus an
insect taken in Kandy in October, 1907.

Ceroplatus quadripunctaius, Brun. {Mycetophilid^). — The
larva of this fly was found feeding on the hymenium of a

72

SPOLU ZEYLANICA.

fungus at Peradeniya. It looks more like a worm than a
Dipterous larva, and it flows along with a motion resembling
that of a snake. It spins silk wherever it goes. It is uni-
colorous, shining, covered with mucus, and it leaves an
iridescent mucus wherever it has been feeding.

The anterior end of the body can be expanded and contracted,
and when expanded shows two distinct, dark, longitudinal
bands one on each side of a light-coloured area. When the
larva is moving, a wave is to be seen passing rhythmically
along its body towards the posterior end. The pupariurn,
which is of much the same colour as the larva, is suspended in
a thin, mist -like web of silk. It is about 6 mm. long, and has
a prominent hump in the thoracic region.

From the pupariurn, which was formed on May 15th, the
imago emerged on the 18th,

Anisodes nehnhsata, Walk. {Geometridai ). — The caterpillar
was feeding on Ficus sp.

It is about J inch long, and tapers towards the anterior end.
The head, thorax, and first segment of the abdomen are
yellowish-brown, the rest of the abdomen grayish-purple.
Four lateral oblique, reddish -purple bands occur on segments
two to five, the three most anterior being edged ventrally
with yellow. Two narrow^ yellowish, longitudinal stripes are
situated on the dorsum of the head. The anal prolegs have a
whitish band on the lateral side.

The pupa is about inch long, and squarely truncate at the
anterior end. The wing cases, head, and thorax are of a
dark purple colour, the rest of the body being greenish-purple.
There is a yellow, transverse stri|)e at the anterior extremity,
and this is continued along the wing cases. The pupa is
suspended by a loop of silk and by silk at the anal region.

From a pupa formed on October 4th the moth emerged on
October 11th, In wing expanse it is about 25 mm. The body
is grayish -white, the wings grayish -white, with large, bluish -
black blotches and smaller purplish dots.

Diopioim adamsi, Pasc. — On the night of July 1st I took
what proved to be the female of this species of Lampyrid. It
was underneath a hedge, and my attention was attracted to
it by its very bright, steady light. The luminous organ is a

NOTES.

73

large oval area oecupying most of the ventral area of the
seventh abdominal segment. When the insect is calling for
the male, she curves up the posterior end. of the body until
the luminous area is fully exposed. She seems to move about
80 as to turn the luminous area in another direction, if one has
not proved successful. While I watched her, three specimens
of Lampropkonis tenebrosus came down, but they did not
stay long. No males of her own species came on the first
night.

The female is larva-like, softly hairy, slightly flattened
dorso-vcntrally, and tapering from the posterior end of the
thorax towards the head, which is small and black. There
are nine broad, dark brown, transverse plates of chitin, one
on each segment from the metathorax backwards. There is
a faint, mid-dorsal, longitudinal brown band on the first two
thoracic segments. Tire mandibles are narrow, curved, and
sharply pointed, suggesting an animal diet. The antennae
are short, and consist of nine segments. The thoracic legs are
well developed.

Later in the evening of the 1st, when I looked at the tube
in which I had placed her, I was astonished to see that she
was luminous at many points. It is very difficult to make
an accurate count of the number, as all the points may not
l>e luminous at the same time, but there seem to be ten
transverse rows of four each, two of the four being on the
dorsal aspect, and two low down on the sides. In the third
row from the anterior end, that on the first abdominal segment,
the ventral spot was wanting on one side, and the penultimate
segment bore three on the dorsum m place of the normal two.
When the spots are luminous, the large ventral area is only
faintly so, but tjiere are a few bright points situated round
its margin. So far as I could make out the spots were situated
on the segments, the lateral ones being ventrad of the spiracles.
No males came on the night of the 2nd.

I exposed the insect on the night of July 3rd towards 7 p.m.,
and she had hardly begun to expose her light when I had
secured six males. The males are very much smaller than
the female. They did not show any light, and came running
along the ground. Later in the evening, in confinement, they,

10 (i{7)14

74

SPOUA ZBYLANIOA.

too, showed a series of luminous points, which, so far as I
could make out, had much the same arrangement as in the
case of the female. The male, however, possesses prothorac.ic
luminous areas, which are absent in the case of the female.
The spots are even more difficult to count in the case of the
male than in that of the female, owing to the small size of the
insect and its restlessness in confinement. The ineso- and
metathoracic ones are weaker than the rest. The dorsal series
can be plainly seen at the posterior end, and also in favourable
circumstances shimng faintly through the elytra. The whole
ventral surface ol the abdomen of the male glows softly.

The male has eight ventral abdominal segments, the
seventh of which is narrow, and is seen clearly only towards
the sides, and the eighth small and somewhat triangular in
shape. As to what may be the significance oC this double set of
luminous organs I am unable even to offer a suggestion. The
large one is evidently sexual, but what function has the series
of lights ? And \vliat part in the economy of the species do
the lights in the case of the male play ? If they are rudi*
mentary organs, it is astonishing to find them emitting the
strong, clear light that they do emit.

I nearly lost the female on tw^o occasions. On one occasion
I had left her for a few seconds, and on my return I found a
toad dangerously near her ! On the second occasion I found
her in the course of the night wandering about on the floor,
she having made her escape, and the interesting thing was
that she was then showing not the large luminous organ, but
the series of luminous points ; this was on the night of the 3rd.

I exposed her again on the night of the 4th about 7 p.m.,
and soon had captured four males. She laid eggs during the
night of the 5th. On the night of the 6th, though I waited
for a long time, she did not show^ her strong light, but the
luminous points glowed faintly. She laid a further lot ol eggs
on the night of the 6th.

The eggs are whitish, oval-cylindrical, about I* 25 ram.
long, and a little longer than broad. They were laid in a loose
mass in the tube.

Peradeniya,

A. RUTHERFOIID.

NOTES,

75

Hecyrtia vitessoide^, Moore.— The caterpillars of this pretty
Pyralid moth defoliated a plant of Lagetta lintearia, the Lace
Bark Tree of the West Indies, growing in the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Peradeniya, in July, and again in September, 1913.

When feeding the caterpillars spin a fine webbing over the
tree, and they are able to lower themselves to the ground by
spinning a thread of silk.

The caterpillars are yellowish-green in colour and shining.
The body -tubercles bear long white hairs. The head is glossy
black. Along each side of the body are tAvo roAvs of circular,
metallic -blue spots. These are in groups of three above the
spiracles, the Iavo upper being the largest and situated close
together, the lower one just dorsad of the spiracle. These
spots aire enclosed in the area between tAV'o longitudinal
yellowish stripes. Faint yeUoAv transverse stripes occur on
the dorsum.

The first thoracic segment and the anal segment are orange-
yellow in colour. Just cephalad of the anal plate is a large,
median, metallic -blue spot.

In confinement the larvae pupated in the soil in a cocoon
formed of particles of earth and small stones.

The pupa is at first shining reddish-brown in colour, and
bears two rows of dorso -lateral black spots. The apex of the
abdomen is somewhat darker in colour.

Later the pupa as a Avhole becomes darker, and the dorso-
lateral spots are less distinct. The Aving cases are yellowish-
broAATi at the base, this area being crossed by tAvo dark broAvn
bands. The apes of the wing case is traversed by numerous
line, dark, longitudinal lines.

The abdominal region is in general lighter in colour than
the head and thorax.

The cremaster consists of a few (3) hooks situated on a
small tubercle.

From caterpillars that went into the soil on September 25
moths began to emerge on October 9.

They agree with Hampson’.s description of Heortia vitessoides,
Moore, in the Fauna of British hidia, Vol. IV., p. 363, except
that, while Kampson gives the wing expanse as 40 mm.,
these range from 25 to 30 mm.

11

6(7)14

78

SrOLIA- ZEYLANIOA.

When handled it emitted a loud continuous note. Speaking
of this subject, Sharp says {Insects, Pt. II., p. 382) : Sphin-
gidae have been recorded as capable of producing sounds in
the larval and pupal, as well as in the perfect, instars ; but
the method in which this is done has not been ascertained,
except in the case of the imago of the Death’s-head moth,
which is well known to emit a very audible cry when not on
the wing ; in this case it is highly probable that the method is
the friction of the palpi against the proboscis, as stated by
Reaumur and Landois ; the inner face of the palp is said to
be marked in this case with fine ridges or striae.”

The above was not the method in the case of the insect
which came under my observation. It continued to produce
the noise when the proboscis was held away from the palps,
and when the palps had been removed. Just where the scat
of sound production is located I am not prepared to say.
It seemed to me possible that the source was located in the
thorax, perhaps internally.

Some recent Peradeniya Records,

Legnatia concinna, Mori. M. S. (Ichneuinonidae). Reared
from Lepidopterous pupa. Previously recorded only from
Dehra Dun, India.

Pammene isocfimpta, Meyr. (Tortricidae). New species,
Limnmla metacypfia, MejT. (Tineidae). New species.
Idiophantis cMridotu, Mejw. (Tineidac). Larva feeds on galls
of Trioza sp. (Psyllidse), on Eugenia,

Argyroploce erotias, Meyr . (Tortric idae) . Larva feeds on galls
of Trioza sp., on leaves of Eugenia. ’

Tinissa torvella, Walk. (Tineidae). Larva feeds on fungus on
bamboo.

BatracJiedra psilopa, Meyr. (Tineidee). Larva feeds in
interior of galls on the leaves of Heptapleurum stellatum.
These gaUs are probably caused by a species of Thrips.

Cryptoblahes proleucella, Hmp. (Pyralidoe). Caterpillar feeds
underneath a web on Coccus viridis^ Gr.

A. RUTHERFORD.

NOTES.

79

Insect Food Plants, — The larva of Danais fumata feeds on
Allceofhania decipiens, Thw., a shrub growing in chenas at
the higher elevations. Observer : Mr. P. G. Saunder, Nuwara
Eliya.

Cyaniris lanka feeds on Smithia hlanda^ Wall., which grows
in damper portions of patanas. The egg is deposited on stem
at foot of flower bud.

February 9, 1914. F. M. MACKWOOD.

Extension of the Bange of the Common Leech . — To the field
naturalist one of the charms of up-country jungles lies in
their freedom from leeches. One may wander at ^vill, without
taking any thought of the pests which drive him out of the
jungles of (say) the Ratnapura District . But a close acquaint-
ance with the country round Hakgala during the last nine
years learls me to suppose that the leech is gradually extending
its range upwards. I may say that the same ground has been
traversed every year at about the same time, so that the
observations have some degree of probability.

In 1906 I acquired my first Hakgala leech at the bottom
of the valley below Hakgala, where the Fort Macdonald
footpath runs alongside the stream. This is at a much low^er
elevation than the Gardems, and I was not particularly
surprised at the occurrence. In 1907 another found me on
the grass by the roadside near the entrance to the Gardens,
and this was considered a stray example brought up the road
by cattle.

In 1909, however, I found leeches abundant in the boundary
ravine of the Hakgala reservation, i.e., the last of the ravines
which run down the hiUsidc across the Ambawela footpath
between the Gardens and Albion estate. I had not met with
any in that locality during the previous four years. They
were confined to the part of the ravine below the path, and
though they are still there, they have apparently not yet
(1914) ascended into the upper part.

80

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In 1912 leeches were common on the grass just below the
laboratory at Hakgala, which is at a slightly lower level than
the Curators bungalow (5,600 feet). Better drainage has
apparently driven them off that piece of grass, but they are
always to be found now on the boundary of the oak plantation
next the fruit garden.

Up to that time the Ambawela footpath formed the upper
limit of the leech’s range. In 1913, however, one found me
ne^r j:he (natural) bed of Hedyckium fiavescens in the upper
part of the Garden, t.e., above the level of the bungalow.

T. PETCH.

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Ninth General Meeting.

The Ninth (Second Anniv'ersary) General Meeting of the Society
was held in the Colombo Museum on February 27, 1913, with
Mr. V. A. Julius in the Cliair. The Secretaries’ and Treasurers’
Reports for 191.3 were deferred to be read at a subsequent meeting.
The following were elected as Office-bearers for 1914 ; —

Patron

His Excellency Sir Robert Chalmers, K.C.B.

President :

The Hon. Mr. R E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.S.
Vice-Presidents :

V. A. Julius, Esq. Sir S. D. Bandaranaiko, Kt.,

F. M. Mackwood, Esq. C.M.G.

A. Nell, Esq., M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Council ;

W. E. Wait, Esq., M.A. ( C.T. Symons, Esq., B. A., F.R.G.S.
T, Petch, Esq., B.A., B.Sc. ) 0. S. Wickwar, Esq.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers :

Joseph Pearson, Esq., D.Sc., F.K.S.E., F.L.S., and
W. A. Cave, Esq.

Professor L. Plate, Professor of Zoology in tho University of
Jena, delivered a lecture on “ Some Zoological Observations made
in Ceylon.” A few exhibits were placed on the table.

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

81

Tenth General Meeting.

The Tenth General Meeting of the Ceylon Natural History
Society was held in the Colombo Museum on April 17, 1914, with
Dr, A. Nell in the Chair.

Mr. E. J. Way land, Assistant Mineral Surveyor, delivered a
lecture on “ The Interpretation of Nature and the Nature of the
Interpretation.”*

Eleventh General Meeting.

The Eleventh General Meeting of the Society was held in the
Colombo Museum on June 12, 1914. Dr. A. Nell presided.

Rev, Father M. LcGoc, B.A., B.Sc., delivered a lecture on
“ Symbiosis, or Plant and Animal Life Partnerships. ” Dr. Pearson
made a few observations on the subject.

Twelfth General Meeting.

The Twelfth General Meeting of the Ceylon Natural History
Society was held in tho Colombo Museum on July 24, 1914, with
Dr. A. Nell in tlie Chair.

Mr. W. E. Wait, M.A., read a paper on "The Distribution of
Birds in Ceylon, and its Relation to recent Geological Changes in
tho Island.”* This being over. Commander Ivitson, R.N.,
exhibited paintings of Ceylon fishes.

* Printed in this Volume, Part XXXVI.

the EOHINODERMS of CEYLON.

83

THE ECHINODERMS OP CEYLON OTHER
THAN HOLOTHURIANS.

By Hubert Lyivun Clark,

Mmeum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge^ Mass., JJ.S.A.

^^HROUGH the kindness of Dr. Pearson a collection of
^ echinoderms belonging to the Colo na bo Museum was
sent to me for examination in the Spring of 1914. There were
no holothurians, but the other classes were well represented
by ten species of orinoids, fifteen species of starfishes, eight
species of brittle- stars, and twenty-two species of echini. Of
these, one crinoid and one starfish seemed to be ncAv to science.
There were no data with any of the specimens, but all were
from Ceylon. Many Avere taken on the pearl banks.

The first notice of the echinoderms of Ceylon is that
published by Bell (1882), listing nineteen species from Point
de Galle. There AVere no holothurians ; and the single crinoid,
one starfish, and one brittle- star were not identifiable- Three
years later Walter (1885) reported on the echinoderms Avhich
Haeckel had collected in Ceylon, but (aside from holothurians)
there w'ere only fourteen species, and of one of tliese the idem i-
fication was not complete. Nevertheless, eight of the species
were additions to Bell’s list. In 1887 Bell published a revised
list of the echinoderms of Ceylon, in Avhich he entered forty
identified species, aside from holothurians. The following
year Dbderlein (1888), reporting on the Sarasins’ collection,
added tAVenty-three starfishes, brittle- stars, and sea-urchins
to the list. In 1890 Ludwig added three more brittle- stars,
besides an unidentified amphiurid. Four years later Thurston
(1894), in “Notes on the Fauna of the Gulf of Mannar,” gives
eight additional species, and subsequent AATiters in scattered
notes have listed a number of species. At the time of the
2 6(8)15

84

SPOLIA ZEYL4NICA.

investigation of the Ceylon pearl fisheries by Herdman in
1902, therefore, not fewer than seventy-five well^authenticated
species of eohinoderms, other than holothurians, were recorded
from the shores of Ceylon, Herdman’s collections brought
this number up to one hundred and ten at least, of which
fifteen are crinoids, thirty-five starfishes, twenty-five brittle-
stars, and thirty-five echini. Still more recently the reports
on the echinoderms in the Indian Museum at Calcutta have
lengthened the list, Koehler adding four starfishes and nine
brittle-stars, while A. H. Clark adds seven comatulids. A few
species have also been added in other Papers by various
writers, so that the recorded echinoderm fauna of the shores of
Ceylon, excluding holothurians, and allowing for cases where
the same species is probably listed under two different names,
is about one hundred and thirty. The collection before me
from Colombo adds three crinoids, four starfishes, two brittle-
stars, and one sea-urchin, following the list of specimens
from the Colombo Museum, I give a revised list of the littoral
echinoderms of Ceylon, so far as it is known at this time
(August, 1914), excepting the holothurians. I have ignored
this interesting class, because Dr. Pearson is himself engaged
in preparing a complete account of its representatives in
Ceylon.

List of Echinoderms from Ceylon in the Colombo Museum.

1. Comantkiis* annulatum (Bell). — A number of specimens

(22) having from 40 to 54 arms. The division series

are nearly always 4 (3 + 4).

2. Cormiithiis parvicirrum (J. Muller). — One small specimen

with 21 arms.

3. Comardhus sammnum, A H. C. — One specimen with

25 arms and 24 cirri, having 15-17 joints.

4. Comanthus schlegelii (P. H. C.).— Two specimens, one of

which has about 120 arms.

• The Greek noun on which this word ia based is neuter, hence
specific names ought to use a neuter ending.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON.

86

5. Heterometra rey'mvdii (J. Muller). — Fifty-five specimens,

three of which are noticeably larger and with longer
arms than the rest.

6 . Dichrometra protecta (Ltk . ) . — Two specimens .

7. Dichrometra tenera (Hartl). — One fine specimen with

40 arms and the cirri XL., 22-25.

8. Cenometra herdmani, A. H. C. — A calyx with the cirri

and 2 arm-bases attached. In A. H. Clark’s
^'Crinoids of the Indian Ocean,” on p. 154, are given
figures of a cirrus of this species, labelled “Ceno-
metra insueta,” while on p. 156 similar figures of
a cirrus of that species are labelled “ Cenometra
herdmani.” Mr. Clark’s description of the difference
between the two species is correct ; he tells me that
the labels on these figures have been unfortunately
interchanged.

9. Tropiometra encrinus, A. H. C. — Two characteristic

specimens.

10. Tropiometra indica, A. H. C.

Cirri XXV., 22, 23, about 20 mm. long ; middle and distal
joints 1 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, and 1*5-1*75 mm. thick.
Centrodorsal 7-8 mm. across, thick and discoidal, with cirri in
one, and a partial second, row*. Brachials very low, less than a
millimeter thick (longitudinally), even when the distal margin
measures 4*5 mm. ; near base of arm there are 14 brachials
(including two syzygial joints) in a centimeter ; beyond middle
there are 18 or 19 brachials (including two syzygial joints) to a
centimeter. Distal margin of basal brachials very uneven
and irregular, slightly flaring, not at all serra-o or spiny ; there
are at least three evident projections, the largest near the base
of the pinnule, but separated from it by a re-entrant curve, the
smallest on the other side of the brachial and the third median
in position. This third projection becomes increasingly
conspicuous on each succeeding brachial, imtil at the middle
of the arm it is a rough projecting knot or rounded tooth.
Distally it gradual ly dec rease s in si ze and d isappears . Pinnules

86

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

much as in T. encrirms, hut the two basal joints of the middle
pinnules are conspicuously larger than the succeeding joints,
and rather abruptly so ; these two joints are much wider than
high. Anns stout at base, rather abruptly attenuate from
near middle, probably about 60 mm, long, but none is
complete. Colour, light brownish- white, without markings of
any sort.

Comparison of the single specimen on which the above
description is based with typical specimens of carimta and
encrinus shows it is neither of those species . N or does it seenj to
be any nearer Mica, so far as Mr. Clark’s fragmentary references
to that species show ; but as he has examined the specimen and
assures me it is indica, f have refrained from giving it another
name. I have decided, however, to let the description I had
drawn up stand. There are no data with the specimen.

11. Astropecten andersoni, Sladeii.— One small specimen.

12. Adropecten Micics, Dbderlein. — Tour small specimens.

13. Astropecten mauritianus, Gray. — 'Five medium-sized and

large specimens.

14. Astropecten zebra, Sladen. — Two small specimens. I

agree with Bell that zebra is only a name for the
young of some previously described astropecten, but
T am not as yet prepared to assert which one.

15. Luidia macukta, M. & T.— Nine specimens, ranging from

very small to very large ; the smallest and three
others have 8 arms each ; the remaining five,
including the three largest, have 1,

16. Sir aster tubercuhtus, gen. et sp. nov.

Generic diagnosis : Body stellate ; disk flattened, without
secondary plates ; primary plates not concealed by skin ;
medioradial xjlates reaching to terminal plate of arm ; entire
abactinal surface granulated ; papulae single, distinct, each
pore surrounded by a few granules, obviously larger than
those covering the neighbouring plates. Inferomarginal plates
without conspicuous spines, but those beyond middle of arm,
each with a low tubercle or flattened tubercle-like spine on

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLOX.

87

Upper distal surface. Adambulacral armature much as in
Stellaster, with a conspicuous, flattened, blunt spine on aetinal
surface. (Name from atp<5c;, a pit in the ground for storing corn
-f acr:T]p, a star ; in reference to the papular pores surrounded
by conspicuous granules.) Genotype — S. tvJ)erculatuSf sp. nov.

It is with much diffidence that I add a new genus to the
perplexing family Goinasteridae, but I cannot otherwise
depose of the present species and Studer’s Stellaster squamu-
losus. That the two are congeneric will not, I think, be
questioned ; that they cannot properly be placed in Stellaster
seems to me equally true. Neither has the plates concealed
by skin, although squamuhsus is nearer true Stellaster in this
respect than is tuherculatris. More important is the fact that
neither has the characteristic spine on the inferomarginals,
which is so conspicuous even in very young specimens of
Stellaster. And finally, neither has the arched disc and slender
pointed rays characteristic of Stellaster. Superficially the
two species are much like Goniodiscus forficulatm, Perrier, but
in that species (whose generic position, by the way, is quite
uncertain) the medioradial plates do not reach the terminal
plate of the arm, the papulsc are not surrounded by enlarged
granules, and the adambulacral armature is in three parallel
series, and has no conspicuous aetinal spine.

Specific diagnosis : Body markedly stellate, flattened.
R = 33 mm., r — 14 mm., and Br. (at base of arm) = 15 mm.
R = 2 '4 r. Abactinal plates granulated, but the outlines of
the separate plates plainly visible. Proximal medioradial
plates and some interradial plates, each with a more or less
conspicuous tubercle ; altogether there are about fifty such
tubercles on the holotype, the largest being on the fourth and
fifth medioradial plates. Many plates which lack a tubercle
have three or four central granules noticeably enlarged.
Granules around the papular pores distinctly larger than those
on the neighbouring plates. Superomarginal plates, 11 on
oach side of each ray, decreasing steadily in size distally, but
becoming more and more swollen ; central granules of each

88

SPOLU ZEYLANICA.

plate much larger than elsewhere on ahactinal surface ; distally
one (sometimes two or three) becomes evidently larger than
the others, and may even become a low tubercle. Terminal
plate smaller than penultimate super omarginal, bearing three
distinct tubercles distally. Inferomarginal plates correspond
in number and position with supcro marginals ; proximal ly
they are uniformly granulated, but distally a group of granules
on the upper distal part of each plate becomes conspicuous,
and one of these tends to develop into a distinct tubercle.
Actinal interradial areas small ; actinal intermediate plates only
extend outwards as far as fifth inferomarginal : these plates
are uniformly granulated, with here and there, generally near
the adambulacral plates, low foraininate or bivalved pediceh
lariae. Adambulacral armature made up of an inner series of
4-6 rather stout blunt spines, the middle ones the largest, and
an outer series {on actinal surface of plate) of one or rarely two
flattened blunt ovate spines ; if two are present, one is much
smaller than the other, and commonly this smaller spine is
replaced by a pedicellaria ; these ovate actinal-adambulacral
spines are much larger than any other spines on the starfish.
Oral spines stout and blunt, but not peculiar. Colour of dried
specimen uniformly pale browm, not at all distinctive. Holo-
type from Ceylon without data.

This species is readily distinguished from sqmmulostis by
the coarse granules of the super omarginal plates and the
presence of abactinal tubercles ; actinally the adambulacral
armature is distinguishably different. There is no other
species known to me with which it needs comparison.

17. Siraster sqmmulostis (Studer). — Three large (R=30 mm.)

and well-preserved specimens prove Koehler is right
in maintaining the validity of this species. But, as
already stated, it does not seem to me proper to retain
it in Stellaster.

18. Anthenea pentagonula (Lam’k.). — Three small specimens

of Anthenea agree well with specimens of the same
size from Hong Kong, identified by Perrier as

THE ECEIINODERMS OF CEYLON.

89

pentcigonula, I am not satisfied that tuberculosa , Gray,
from tropical Australia, is really specifically distinct.

I have not yet found any tangible, constant differences.

19. Anthenea rudis^ Koehler.— Two small but well-marked

specimens give support to the validity of this recently
described form.

20. Oreaster lincJcii (Bl.), — Two characteristic specimens.

21. Oreaster mammillatus (Aud.). — The series of sixteen speci-

mens shows considerable variation in the details of
the tuberculation. One specimen is almost exactly
like the type of 0. affinis, M. & T. (figured by Koehler,
1910), and I have no doubt that affinis is a synonym
of rrurntmillatus.

22. Culcita schmideliuna (Retz.).— Two specimens ; neither is

perfectly typical, but there is little doubt of the
identity.

23. Linchia Isevigaia (L.). — Two specimens.

24. Echinasier eridauelUi, M. & T.— Ten specimens, with

five rays each. The absence of six- and seven-rayed
specimens suggests that this is a selected series.

25. Metrodira subulata, Gray. — Five specimens ; at least two

have shorter and stouter rays than usual.

26. Ophioplocus imbricatus (M. & T.). — One specimen.

27. Ophiarachnella marmorata (Lyman). — Seven specimens,

12-19 mm. across the disc. I believe that this species
must be maintained as distinct from gorgonia,
although it may be only a variety of the latter.

28. , Ophiolepis superba, nom. nov. (~ Ophiura annulosa, Bl.
NON Lamarck). — One remarkable specimen, 22 mm.
across the disc, uniformly deep buff, with no dark
markings. It is curious that it has not previously
been noted that dc Blainville’s name annulosa was
preoccupied and is hence untenable. Both Ophiura
anmdosa, Lamarck, and 0. a^nnulosa, de Blainville,
have been in constant use for many years, each being
a conspicuous and well-known East Indian species.

90

SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

29. OphiacHs savignyi^ M. & T. — Seventy -eight specimens,

mostly very young.

30. Ophiolhrix loTigipeda (Lara’k.). — One small specimen.

31. Ophiotkrix exigua^ Lyman. — One small specimen.

32. Ophiotkrix n&teidina (Lam*k.). — Four specimens ; one is

remarkable for its large size, the disc being 18 mm,
across ; a second is notable for its colouration, the
yellow {red in life) greatly predominating over the
blue.

33. Ophiocnemis rmnnorata (Lam’k.). — One specimen.

34. Phyllaoanihus imperialis (Lam’k.). — Two specimens.

35. Prionocidaris bactdosa (Lam’k.). — One young specimen ;

test 28 mm, in diameter ; primary spines handsomely
banded with purplish-red and pale greenish-yellow.

36. Eckinothrix diade^ma (L.). — One young specimen ; test

about 45 mm. in diameter. The colouration of this
specimen is entirely different from that of any other
individual of the species I have ever seen. The test
is yellowish ; ambulacral primaries unhanded yellow-
green ; interambulacral primaries dull reddish -purple,
with or without pale yellow-green bands. The large
pedicellariae and the character of the large primary
spines show that this specimen is diadema rather
than calaimria, but it is possibly representative of an
undescribed species or a hybrid.

37. Cerdredhinus savignyi (Mich.). — Two specimens, 4 and 40

mm. in diameter. Both are remarkable for very
light colouration . Test dull yellowish, with no black ;
spines banded red or purplish-red and whitish or
pale yellowish. The pedicellariae of the larger
specimen are like those of savignyi, and there are
faint lines on the upper interambulacral plates which
may represent the characteristic blue lines of that
species.

38. Stomopneustes variolaris (Lam’k.). — ^Two specimens.

39. Taxapnemies 2 >iholu 8 (Lam’k.). — Two specimens.

THE EC5H1N0DEBMS OF CEYLON.

91

10. Tri'pneustes gratilla (L.). — Two specimens.

41. Temnopleurus toreumaticiis (Leske). — One specimen.

42. GyMTiechinus robillardi (De Lor.). — One fine specimen,

28 mm. in diameter.

43. Salrmcis bicolor ^ Agass. — Six fine specimens.

44. Salrmcis virguhta, Agass. & Des. — Fourteen specimens.

45. Psevdoboleiia rmculaia, Trosch. — Four specimens. Al-

though these individuals have the conspicuous dark
blotches of maculata, the buccal plates are large and
close together, as is supposed to be characteristic of
Indiana, Probably the two species are not distinct.

46. Echinostrephus molar e (BL). — One specimen.

47. Echinomeira rmiheei (Bl.). — One small green specimen,

48. Clypeaster kumilis (Leske). — Seven specimens.

49. Laganum depressum, Agas.s. — Two specimens.

50. Fibularia volva^ Agass. & Des.— One bare test, re-

markable for the size and form of the ambulacral
pores. These are not only conspicuously large, but
are distinctly triangular in outline instead of circular.
This is particularly true of those in the outer part of
the posterior petals. There are altogether more than
70 such pores. The specimen was found in the
stomach of a large starfish, Luidia maculata, M. & T.

51. Echinodiscxts auriiuSj Leske. — Seven specimens.

52. Eckinolampas aUxandri, De Lor.-— Six specimens.

53. Eckinolampas ovata (Leske). — Four specimens.

54. Lovenia elongata (Gray). — Nineteen specimens, mostly

young.

55. Pscudomareixa alia (A. Ag.). — Three specimens. I think

there is no doubt Koehler is right in separating this
species from Maretia. The difficulty with the
“ Challenger ” report figures, to which De Loriol,
De Meijere, and Koehler refer, is due to the fact that
the specimen there figured is not Maretia alia, but
appears to be quite a distinct, though superficially
very similar, species. This statement is based on a

6(8)15

3

92

SPOLTA ZEYLANICA.

comparison of one of the “ Challenger ” specimens
in the M. 0. Z. collection with one of Agassiz’s
original types from Kagoshima Bay. The Ceylon
specimens before me are notable for their large size ;
one is 42 mm. long. They are clearly the same
species, however, as the individual from Kagoshima.

Littoral Echinoderms ot Ceylon, excepting Holothurians.

In the following list I give in connection with each name a
reference to a standard work,* where synonymy and other
details may be found. Some of the species listed by Bell,
Dodcrlein, or later writers appear here under other names. A
very few are omitted, as I am convinced the supposed records
are based on incorrect identifications. It should bo borne in
mind that this is a list of species actually recorded from
Ceylon. No doubt there are many others living in the
shallow water about the Island which have not yet been seen
by a zoologist. Some of these are already recorded from the
Indian shores of the Gulf of Mannar. Particularly the
comatulids and brittle -stars will prove to be as yet imperfectly
known. Of the latter class, there are probably twice as many
living in Ceylon waters as are here listed. The chief purpose of
this compilation is to serve as a basis for further investigation.

Peatheb-stars {Comaiulid Crinoids).

1. Comatella stelUgera (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 68.

2. Capillaster multiradiata (L.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 74.

3. sentosa (P. H. 0.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 73.

4. Comatula pectinata (L.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 80.

5. Comanthus annulatura (Bell). A. H. Clark, 1912, *

p. 96,

parvicirrum (J. Muller). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 97.

See Literature List” at end of Paper.

THE EOHINODEEMS OF CEYLON.

93

7. Comanthus samoanum, A. H. C. A. H. Clark, 1912,
p. 95.

90 hlegelii (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 91.

9. Amphimetramilberfci (J. Miilier). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 111.

10. Heterometra bengalensis (Hartl.). A. H. Clark, 1912,
p. 130.

— roynaudii (J. Miillor). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 121.

12. Stepbanometra indioa (Smith). A. H. Clark, 1912,
p. 135.

][3 ... — - marginata (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 135.

14 , monacantha (Hartl.), A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 136.

15 ^ tenuipinna (Hartl.). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 135.

16. Dichromotra palmata (J. Muller), A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 148.

17. — protecta (Ltk,). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 143.

18. ^ tenera (Hartl.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 148.

19. Cenomotra herdmani, A. H. C, A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 154.

20. Decametra taprobanes (A. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 159.

21. Colobometra discolor, A. H. C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 166.

22. Oligometra serripinna (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 169.

23. Tropiometra encrinus, A. H. C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 177.

24. indica, A. H. C. See ante, p. 35.

25. Mastigometra micropoda, A. H. C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 227.

94

SPOLIA ZBYLANIOA,

Starfishes {Asteroids).

26. 1. Astropecten andersoni, Sladen. Koehler, 1910,

p. 24.

27. 2. hemprichii, M. & T. De Loriol,

1885, p. 74.

28. 3. ■ ■ — indicus, Dod. Koehler, 1910, p, 27.

29. 4. mauritianus, Gray. Koehler, 1910,

p.32.

30. 5. petalodeus (Retz.). Liitken, 1871,

p. 231 {under the name A. euryacanthus).

31. 6. — polyacanthus, M. & T, De Loriol,

1885, p. 76.

32. 7. tamilicus, Dod. Koehler, 1910

p. 32.

33. 8. velitari.s, v. Mart. Doderlein, 1896,

p. 307.

34. 9. zebra, Sladen. Sladen, 1889, p. 212.

35. 10. Luidia hardwickii (Gray). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 147 (331 in reprint).

36. JX. raaculata, M. & T. Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 154 (338 in reprint).

37.. 12. Stellaster incei, Gray. Sladen, 1889, p. 322.

38. 13, Sirastor squamulosus (Studer). Koehler, 1910,

p.81.

39. 14. — tuberoulatus, H. L. C. See ante,

p. 86.

40. 75, Asterope carinifera (Laiii’k.). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 67.

41. 16. Anthenea pentagonula (Lam’k.). Perrier, 1875-

76, p. 90 (274 in reprint).

42. 17, rudis, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 86.

43. 18. Oreaster lincki (De Bi.). Bell, 1884, p. 72.

44. 19. — ■ mammillatua (Aud.). Bell, 1884, p. 67.

45. 20. nodosus (L.). Bell, 1884, p. 70.

46. 21. thurstoni (Bell). Bell, 1888, p. 385.

THE ECHINODEEMS OF CEYLON.

95

47. 22. Culcita schmideliana (Retz.).-^

48. 23. Asterina cepheiis {M. & T.)

p. 69.

fDe Loriol,
p. 64.
Doderlein,
p.315.

De Loriol,

1885,

1896,

1885,

49^ 24. lorioli, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 129.

50. 25. Disasterina ceylanioa, Dod. Doderlein, 1888,

p. 825.

51. 26. Anseropoda sarasini (De Tjor.). Koehler, 1910,

p. 127.

52. 27. Linckia guildingii, Gray (= pacifica, Gray).

Perrier, 1875-76, p. 408 (144 in reprint).

53. 28. Isevigata (L.). De Loriol, 1885, p. 36

(under name miliaris).

54. 29. Ophidiaster cylindricus (Lam’k.), De Loriol,

1885, p. 20.

55. SO. ornatus, Koeh. Koehler, 1910,

p. 151.

56. 31. Nardoa segyptiaca (Gray). Koehler, 1910, p. 157.

57. 32. novsC'Oaledonise (Perr.). Perrier, 1875-

76, p. 426 (162 in reprint).

58. 33. — : tuberculata, Gray. Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 421 (157 in reprint).

59. 34. variolata (Retz.). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 423 (159 in reprint).

60. 35. Fromia milleporella (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 44.

61. 36. tumida, BeU. Bell, 1882, p. 124.

62. 37. Ferdina ofEreti, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 143.

63. 38. Retaster cribrosus (v. Mart.). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 199 (383 in reprint).

^Doderlein, 1896, p. 320.
I De Loriol, 1885, p. 6

64. 39. Aoanthasterplanci(L.).<^ (under the name A.

\ mauritiensis).

96

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

65. 40 . Eohinaster purpureus (Gray), De Loriol, 1886,

p. 10.

66. 41 . Metrodira subulata, Gray. Koehler, 1910, p. 172.

Brittle-stars {Ophiurans).

67. 1 . Pectinura arenosa, Lyman. Lyman, 1882, p. 15.

68. 2 . fallax (Peters). De Loriol, 1894, p. 4.

69. 3 . Ophiaraohnella gorgonia {M. & T.). H. L. Clark,

1909, p. 123,

70. 4 . marmorata (Lym.). Lyman,

1874, p. 222.

71. 5. septemspinosa (M'. & T.). De

Loriol, 1893, p. 395,

72. 6 . Ophiarachna incrassata (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1909, p. 127.

73. 7 , Ophiolepis cincta, M. & T. De Loriol, 1894, p. 9.

74. 8 . mgosa, Koch. Koehler, 1898, p. 64.

75 . p. superba, H. L. C. (See ante, p. 89.)

De Loriol, 1894, p. 10.

76. 10 . Ophioplocus imbricatus (M. & T.). De Loriol,

1894, p. 12.

77. 11 . Ophiura kinbergi (Lym.). Lyman, 1882, p. 38.

78. 12 . Ophiacti8savignyi(M.&T.). Koehler, 1905, p. 26.

79. 13 . Amphiura duncani, Lym. Koehler, 1905, p. 33.

80. 14 . Ophiocnidasexradia, Dune. Koehler, 1905, p.33.

81. 13 . Ophionereisporrecta,Lym. Koehler, 1898, p, 74.

82. 16 . Ophiocoma brevipes, Peters. De Loriol, 1894,

p. 25.

83. 17 . erinaceus, M. & T. De Loriol, 1894,

p. 21.

g 4 . pica, M. & T. De Loriol, 1894, p. 28

(under the name lineolata).

85. 19. scolopendrina (Lam’k.). De Loriol,

1894, p. 23.

86. 20. Ophiarthrum elegans, Peters. Koehler, 1898,

p. 108.

THE EOHINODEEMS OF CEYLON. ' 97

87. 21> Ophiomastix annulosa (Lam’k.). Lyman, 1882,

p. 174.

88. 22. Ophiacantha decora, Koeh. Koehler, 1898, p. SO.

89. 23. Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lam’k.). Doderlein,

1888, p. 833.

90. 24. Ophiomaza cacaotica, Lym, Koehler, 1898, p. 84.

91. 25. Ophiothela holdsworthii, E. A. Smith. E, A,

Smith, 1878, p. 464.

92. 26. Ophiopteron elegans, Ludw. Koehler, , 1905,

p. 112.

93. 27. Ophiothrix aspidota, M. & T. Koehler, 1904, p. 87.

94. 2S. eiliaris (Lam’k.). Koehler, 1904,

p. 100.

95. 29. — comata, M. & T. Koehler, 1904,

p. 105.

96. 30. exigua, Lym. Lyman, 1874, p. 236.

97. 31. foveolata, Mrktr. Koehler, 1905,

p. 76.

98. 32. innocens, Koeh. Koehler, 1898«,

p. 164.

99. 33. longipeda (Lam’k.). DeLoriol, 1894,

p. 36.

100. 34. nereidina (Lam’k.). Doderlein, 1888,

p. 832.

101. 35. punctolimbata, v. Mart. Koehler,

1905, p. 93.

102. 36. Ophiomyxa brevispina, var. irregularis, Koeh.

Koehler, 1898, p. 110.

103. 37. Astrophyton clavatum, Lym, Lymian, 1865,

p. 191.

Sea-urchins (Echini or Echinoid^).

104. i. Eucidaris metularia (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark, 1907,

, p. 184.

105. 2. Phyllacanthus imperiahs (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1907, p. 188.

98

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

106. 3. Prionocidaris baculosa (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1907, p. 189.

107. 4, — biapinosa (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1907, p. 188 (under the name Phyllacanthua
annulifera).

108. 5. Centrechinus savignyi (Mich.). A. Agassiz &

H. L. Clark, 1908, pp. 112-114.

109. 6, Centrechinus setosum (Leske). A. Agassiz &

H.L.Clark, 1908, pp. 112, 113.

110. 7. Echinothrix diadema (L.). A. Agassiz & H. L.

Clark, 1908, p. 116.

111. S. Astropyga radiata (Leske). A. Agassiz & H. L.

Clark, 1908, p. 123.

112. 9. Asthenosoma urens, Saras. A. Agassiz & H, L.

Clark, 1909, p. 172.

113. 10. Stomopneustes variolaris (Lam’k.). A. Agassiz,

1873, p. 437.

114. 11. Temnopleurus reevesii{Gray). H.L.Clark, 1912,

pp. 312, 313.

116. 12. toreumaticus (Leske). H.L.Clark,

1912, p. 312.

116. 13. Salmacis bicolor, Agass. H.L.Clark, 1912, p. 316.

117. 14. — dussumieri, Ag. & Des. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 316.

118. 15, virgulata, Ag, & Des, H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 316.

119. 16. Toxopneustes pileolus (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 283.

120. 17. Tripneustes gratilla (L.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

p.286.

121. 18. Gymnechinus robillardi (De Lor.). H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 287.

122. 19. Microcyphus maculatus, Agass. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 323.

123. 20. Pseudoboletia Indiana (Mich.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

p. 345.

THE EOHINODEKMS OF CEYLON.

99

124. 21. Pseudoboletia maculata, Trosch. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 346.

125. 22. Echinostrephus molare (Bl.). H. L. Clark, 1912

p. 342.

126. 23. Echinoraetra mathaei (Bl.). H, L. Clark, 1912,

pp. 371, 372.

127. 2L oblonga (BL). H. L. Clark, 1912,

pp. 372, 373.

128. 25. Clypeaster humilis (Leske). H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp. 24, 36.

129. 25. reticulatus (L.), H. L. Clark, 1914,

.j pp. 24, 34.

130. 21. Laganum depressum, Agass. H. L. Clark, 1914,

p. 45.

131. 25. Fibularia volva, Ag. & Des. H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp. 57, 58.

132. 29. Echinodiacus auritus, Leske. H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp. 70, 71.

133. 30. bisperforatus, Leske. H. L. Clark,

1914, p. 71.

134. 31. Ecliinoneus cyelostomus, LesKe. De Loriol,

1883, p. 38.

135. 32. Echinolampas alexaiidri, Be Lor. De Loriol,

1883, p. 43.

136. 33. — ovata (Leske). A.* Agassiz, 1873,

p. 553 (under the name oviformis). See also
p. 114.

137. 34. Schizaster gibberulus, Agass. A. Agassiz, 1873,

p. 612.

138. 35. Metalia sternalis (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1883,

p. 44.

139. 36. Lovenia elongata, Gray. Koehler, 1914, p. 111.

140. 31. Maretia planulata (Landk.). Koehler, 1914,

p. 106.

141. 38. Pseudomaretia alta (A. Ag.). Koehler, 1914,

p. 107.

4

6(8)15

100

SPOLU ZEYLANICA.

Literature List.

'.4 ^05512.-1873, “ Revision of the Echini,” Pt. III. 111.
Cat. M. a Z., No. 7, pp. 379-628.

A. Agassiz and B. L. Clark. — 1908, “ Hawaiian and other
Pacific Echini.” Mem. M. C. Z., Si, No. 2,
pp. 43-134.

1909, the same. Mem. M. C. Z., Si, No. 3,

pp. 135-204.

Bell, F. J, — 1882, “ Note on the Echinoderm Fauna of the
Island of Ceylon.” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5),
10, pp. 218-225.

1884, ‘‘ The Species of Oreaster.” Proo, Zool.

Soc. London, pp. 57-87.

1887, “ The Echinoderm Fauna of the Island

of Ceylon.” Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, (2), S,
pp. 643-658.

1888, “Report on a Collection of Echino-

derms,” &c. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp.
383-389.

Clark, A. H. — 1912, “The Crinoids of the Indian Ocean.”

Echinoderma of Indian Museum, Pt. VII.,
pp. 1-325.

Clark, H. L. — 1907, “ The Cidaridae.” Bull. M. C. Z., 61
No. 7, pp. 163-230.

1909, “ Notes on some Australian and Indo-

Pacific Echinoderms.” Bull. M. C. Z., 52,
■ No. 7, pp. 107-136.

1912, “ Hawaiian and other Pacific Echini,”

Mem. M. C. Z., Si, No. 4, pp. 205-384.

1914, the same. Mem. M, C. Z., i6, No. 1,

pp. 1-78.

DoderUin, L. — 1888, “ Echinodermen von Ceylon.” Zool.
Jahrbr, Abt. f. Syst., S, pp. 821-846.

1896, “ Bericht fiber die .... Asteroidea.”

In Semon’s Zool. Forsh. Australien. Denk.
Ges. Jena, S, pp. 301-322,

THE ECHINOBERMS OF CEYLON. 101

1898,“ ‘ Investigator '^Ichinodermes.’' LesOphi-
ures littorales. Bull. Sci. France Belgique, 57,
pp. 54-124.

- — ■1898a, “ Description d’une Ophiure,’^ &c.

Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 25, pp. 164, 165.

— 1904, “ Ophiures nouvelies ou peu connues.”

Mem. Soc. Zool. France, 17, pp. 54-119.

1905, Ophiures del’espedition du ‘Siboga.’ ”

Siboga Reports, 456, pp. 1- 142.

1910, “ Shallow-water Asteroidea.” Echino-

derma of Indian Museum, Pt. VI., pp.
1-184.

1914, “ An Account of the Echinoidea :

Spatangides.” Echi noderm a of Indian Mu-
seum, Pt. VIII., pp. 1-258.

Loriol, P. de, — 1883, “ fehinodermes recueillis a Tile

Maurice: ^fichinides.” Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist.
Nat. Geneva, 25, No. 8, pp. 1-64.

1885, “ fehinodermes recueillis a Tile

Maurice : II. StelI6rides.’’ Mem. Soc. Phys.
Hist. Nat. Geneva, 2P, No. 4, pp. 1-84,

— — -1893, “ fichinodermes de la Baie d’Amboine.”

Rev. Suisse Zool., 7, pp. 359-427.

1894, “ Echinodermes recueilhs .... a Tile

Maurice: III. Ophiurides et Astrophytidei^’^
Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneva, 32, Pt. I.,
No. 3, pp. 1-64.

Ludwig, H.— 1890, “ Ceylonesische Echinodermen.” Sitz.

Niederrheinischen Ges. Nat. Heilk. in Bonn,
pp. 98-105.

LuikeM, C.— 1871, " Fortsatte kritiske og heskrivende Bidrag
til kundskab om Sostjernerne (Asteriderne).”

Vid. Med for .... 1871, Nos. 15-19,

pp. 227-304,

Lyimn, T. — 1865, “ Ophiuridse and Astrophytidse.” III. Cat.
M. C, Z., No. 1, pp. 1-195.

102

SPOLIA ZEYIiANICA.

Lyman, T.— 1874, “ Opliiuridse and Astrophytidae, new
and old.” Bud. M. C. Z., 3, No. 10, pp.
221-272.

— — 1882, “ 'Challenger’ Ophiuroidea,” pp. l*-386.

Perrier, E. — 1875-76, “ Revision de Stellerides.” Arch.

Zool. Exp.

Sladen, If. P. — 1889, “'Challenger’ Asfceroidea,” pp.
1-893.

Smith, E. A. — 1878, “ Description of a remarkable new form
of Ophiuridae from Ceylon.” Ann. Mag. Nat,
Hist. (5), i, pp. 463-465.

Thurston, E. — 1894, “ Inspection of Ceylon Pearl Banks.”

Bull. Madras Gov. Mus., No. 1, pp. 36-64.
Walter, A. — 1885, “ Ceylon Eclunodermen.” Jena. Zeits., IS,
pp. 365-384.

NOTKS ON CEYLON COCCIB^,

103

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID®.

By A. Rutherforo, M.A., B.Sc. (Edin.),
Government Entomologist of Ceylon.

IscHNASPis LONomosTRis, Sign.

On Graptophyllum horknsis.

MOALE lepidosaphes-like, long, narrow, vory dark brown
O in colour. Dorsal surface of pygidium of adult with a
tessellated patch. Two pairs of lobes, median lobes about
half their width apart, each lobo somewhat triangular and
minutely serrated along the margin. Second lobe duplex,
the mesal part much the larger, non -serrated, projecting almost
as far caudad as do the median lobes, and w'ith a chitinous
band on each side running well into the pygidium. Third
lobe and sometimes fourth may be slightly developed. Apex
of pygidium slightly concave. Tw^o short setae between the
median lobes, a seta, a plate, and a conspicuous pore -pro-
jection between the median and second lobes, a seta, a
plate, and a pore -projection laterad of the second lobes, four
plates (or five) on the pygidial margin, and six or seven
plates on the tw’^o abdominal segmentvS in front of the
pygidium.

Circumgenital pores 2 (5 and 4) (2 and 2). On Landolphia
kirkii specimens wore seen with the circumgenital pores
irregularly arranged in six groups of from two to five each —
totalling seventeen.

On coffee pores were — 3 (5 and 6) (2 and 2) ; 3 (5 and 5)
(2 and 2). Insects, which were examined as soon as collected,
contained larvae in an ad.vanced stage of development. An
insect from leaves of coffee contained four large eggs as long
as the breadth of the body, but lying in a slightly oblique
position.

104

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Frogattiella pbnicillata, Gr,

(=: Odormpis penicillata,)

J. B. N. H., Vol. XVI., p. 346.

The “ hairs ” of Green are in reality plates, of which there
are six or seven. There are also 2 long setae which reach as far
•caudad as do the plates. There is a seta just mosad of the
second paraphyses and another at the anterior limit of the
pygidium. A third pair of paraphyses was not visible in the
insects examined. The body contained larvae with mouth-
setae well developed. There are parastigmatic pores associated
with the anterior spiracles. The pygidium and the lateral
margins of the preceding segments are more highly chitinized
than the rest of the pygidium. The anus is surrounded by a
ring of chi tin.

ChrYSOMPHALUS CISTtjLOIDES, Gr.

Ibid., p. 342.

I am not certain that Green is correct in his interpretation
of the shape of the scale. Some look very like it, but though
the ventral scale does stand up, I think there is also a tilt
upwards in the dorsal scalo. Many scales arc quite without
the erect part of the ventral scale. The clear canal-like area
running cephalad from the margin of the pygidium to the anus
is very conspicuous. There is a conspicuous broad plate
truncate and notched at the apex laterad of the s-econd and
third lobes, and others may have been broken off.

Circumgenital pores 2 (4 and 2) ; 1 (4 and 4) ; those of each
group in a row. The body contains iarva3 with mouth-setae
developed,

Chionaspis (subcorticalis, Gr. ?),

Ibid,, p. 351.

Under bark of Artocarpus integriJoUa.

The secretion is very thin ; scalo otherwise as in C. subcorti-
calis, Gr. Adult female elongated or with the pygidium
somewhat retracted. In its pygidial characters the insect
resembles Chiomspis subcorticalis, Gr. The median lobes,
however, are closer together, while the second lobes arc

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCIDiE.

105

distinct, though hyaline and duplex, each half being longer
than broad ; the dorsal pores are slightly fewer than are
represented in Green’s figure, there being six in place of nine
in the second series, four in the posterior, and two in the
anterior portion of the arch. There is a prominent pore-
opening laterad of the median lobes and of the first plate.
Plates 0, 1, 1, 1, 2.

The anterior spiracles possess a prominent group of small
parastigmatic glands [C. subcoriicalis, Gr., is said to have no
such glands).

Circumgenital pores 5 (19 and 18) (24 and 27).

Anus located as in G. suhcorticalisj Gr.

Aspidiotus (cfculus, Gr. ?).

Ibid., p. 341.

Insect oval, not ‘ ‘ long pyriform The lobes very distinctly
notched on euch side, not “ obscurely emarginate ” (in
his figure, however, Green represents the notches as very
distinct) ; apex broadly rounded, the mesal and lateral
notches at the same level. Laterad of the lobes some
8 or 9 long pectinse ; these are in a continuous series, as
in Morganella maskelU, Ckll., not in two groups as in A.
cuculus. No “ distinct marginal prominence ” between the
groups, nor a‘‘ larger conical point ” beyond the outer group.
Pectinse (two ?) between the lobes ; all pectinse frayed at apex.
The anal orifice has a comparatively broad chitinous margin,
as in Green’s figure of A. cuculus. A small seta just laterad of
median lobes, 2 or 3 longer setse in region of the pectiiiae, and
3 or 4 on the margin of the pygidium cephala^l of the pectinse.
A clear dorsal pore in the pygidium cephalad of the base of
each lobe, as in Green’s figure of A. cuculus. Minute dorsal
pores especially distinct in a row running cephalad from the
lateral side of the median lobes.

On twigs of Mesua ferrea, Peradeniya.

Though this insect shows several points of difference from
A. cuculus, Gr., I hesitate to consider it as a separate species,
the more so as both occur on Mesua ferrea. The one may be
a younger stage of the other.

106

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Parlatoru pergandii, var. phyllakthi, Gr.

Ibid.y p. 350.

On Diospyros ehenum. Colouration of scale as in type.

The fourth lobe on one side is lobe-like with faint serrations,
on the other with distinctly deeper serrations, but still not
pectina-like.

Ciroumgenital pores (6 and 5) (5 and 5).

Diaspis boisduvalh, Sign.

Scale circular, exuviae more or less central ; grayish -white.
Adult female but little longer than broad ; a conspicuous
tubercle on margin of thorax on each side. Apex of pygidium
deeply notched ; median lobes slightly divergent, narrowing
towards apex, which is blunt, serrated on mesal edge, not
markedly free at apex . There is a gland-pore and two short setae
between the median lobes . There is a seta and a plate laterad of
the lobes. A pore-projection, situated between tho median and
second lobes, projects as far caudad as does the apex of second
lobes. Second lobe duplex, mesal half reaching further caudad
than do the median lobes ; each half-rounded at apex with a
slight lateral notch. Between second and third lobes a plate
and a pore -project ion. Third lobes duplex, slightly larger than
second and of much the same shape. There is a seta on the
lateral half of each of the second and third lobes, Laterad of
third lobe is a plate and a duplex lobe-like projection ; then
two short, stout, pointed plates, and a stout spinous projection
followed by four similar plates. Similar plates occur on tho
two abdominal segments cephaM of the pygidium.

Circumgenital pores bunched, 8 (16 and 19) {14 and 14).

On leaf of Orchid, Peradeniya,

Aspidiotus (orientalis, Newst. ?).

Asp. osbeckiXf Gr. Ibid.^ p. 47.

On leaves of Limonia alaia . Antennal tubercle broader than
long, with a short median projection and bearing a long seta
laterally. Mesal lobes as in Green’s figure. Second lobes
much as in Green’s figure, but the lateral notch is more
distinctly caudad of the mesal. Third lobes almost as broad
as second lobes and deeply notched on the lateral margin*

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCm.E.

107

Pectinae 2, 2, 3, and 3 beyond the third lobes, deeply divided
at apex and scarcely projecting beyond the lobes. All the
pectinae laterad of the third lobes Avith dtcf^ospermze-like
processes ; these processes bent towards the mesal lobes.
Paraphyses indistinct, those on the mesal side of the median
lobe being the most distinct. Anus large, about its own length
from the apex of the pygidium. Interval between second and
third lobes wider than between median and second lobes.

Circumgenital pores present (6 and 6) (5 and 6) ; (6 and 5)
(4 and 4) ; (7 and ?) (5 and 4).

CiiRYsoMPHALus ROSSI, Mask.

Green, Coccidse of Ceylon,” Pt. I., p. 45.

On leaves of Cyca^ sp.

The lobes are distinctly notched on the lateral margin,
obscurely on mesal margin. The pectinae appear as if united
at the base. There are seven pairs of distinct paraphyses ;
a pair at the base of each lobe and a pair between the second
and third lobes, one on each side. The second, fifth, and
seventh paraphyses of each side the longest. Numerous finer
paraphyses on the pygidial margin.

Circumgenital pores (9 and 8) (7 and 7) ; (13 and 13) (7 and 8).

The mouth-setae and lobes of unborn young are distinct.
The median lobes of the embryo are widely separated, longer
than broad, convergent, serrated on lateral margin, slightly
notched at apex on mesal side ; two small pointed plates in
the interval between them, also two setae projecting oephalad
and crossing. A second pair of lobes is prasent, longer than
broad, notched on both margins.

Aonidiella (Chrysomphalus) aurantl', Mask.

Ibid., p. 58.

On Morus sp.

The pygidium and one or two segments in front of the
pygidium are less heavily chitinized than the rest of the body.
The paraphyses are inconspicuous. The median lobes are
distinctly larger than the second lobes, The second lobes
Juay be without a notch on the mesal margin, resembling the
third lobes in that respect.

6(8)15

108

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PSEUDAONIDIA TRILOBITIPORMIS, Gr,

Ibid., p. 41.

On Peddeia africana.

Antenna consists of a single long seta. Anterior parastig-
matic pores 12. Median lobes more strongly chitinized than
the others. Median lobes do not reach quite so far caudad as
do the second lobes. All lobes except fourth rounded at
apex and obscurely notched on each side near the apex ; the
fourth notched on the lateral side only. Second and third
lobes of much the same width and but slightly narrower than
the median lobes.

Circumgenital pores (18 and 19) (15 and 18).

On Ixora sp.

Lobes narrowing towards the base, apices rounded. Median,
second, and third lobes project almost equally far caudad.

Anterior parastigmatic pores 17-18. Circumgenital pores
(30 and 25) (23 and 14). Adult female dark purple, tip of
abdomen paler. Larvae dark purple.

Aonidia perplexa, Gr.

J. B. X. H. Soc., Vol, XIIL, p. 252.

Lobes of the second exuvium expanded caudally, the apex
directed towards the meson ; apex on unbroken curve. Two
pectince between the median lobes, two between the first and
second and second and third lobes, and eleven' laterad of the
third lobos ; these eleven pectinae produced into a long point
and pectinate on the lateral margin.

Antonina sp.

Female very dark brown in colour, almost completely
covered by loose white wax. Antennae situated on the
anterior margin, 2-jointed, the basal joint short, the terminal
with about 7 hairs at its apex. Legs absent. Spiracles large,
each with from 22 to 25 parastigmatic glands. Derm pores
circular, of variable size. Derm covered with setse. Apex of
abdomen chitinized and bearing numerous derm pores and
setse. Anal ring with 6 stout setse, which reach to the

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID/E,

109

posterior margin. Posterior margin slightly concave with
large setae on the edge of the concavity. Under tho leaf-
sheaths of Panicum UTicimtum at Peradeniya.

Morganblla maskelli, Ckll.

{Aspidiotus longis'pimis, Morg.)

J. B. N. H. Soc., Vol. XVI., p. 340.

Antenna a low tubercle bearing several smaller tubercles,
and at tho base a long stout seta curved towards the middle
line. On the cephalic margin between the level of the antennae
and placed close together are two stout setae. Each lobe with
two lateral notches, the proximal near the base and obscure,
the distal very distinct. The lobes project into the pygidium
as far as the anus, and tho cephalic end of the projection may
be knobbed. The pygidium is not markedly chitinized,
though there may be several strands of chit in laterad of the
vagina. The first pair of setse laterad of the lobes are short
and stout, the one more laterad the longer ; the second pair
may be similar in shape or long and slender and curved at
the apex. The pectinse are much more pectinate than in
Green's figure, the fringe being present on both sides of the
main shaft and projecting at right angles to the shaft. The
first pair of setae are separated from the lobes by at least two
pectinse. The larva is broadly oval and possesses a w’eU-
marked pair of lobes, which are somewhat convergent and
project slightly into the pygidium. Each possesses three
notches, one mcsad and two laterad of the rounded apex.
Between the lobes are two short stout setae and two long setae,
one at the base of each lobe. Laterad of the lobes are several
short setae and a hyaline projection serrated at the apex.

An insect on Moms sp. contained in the posterior abdominal
region a parasite with stout, sharply-hooked mandibles, and
at the caudal end a tube continuous with tho alimentary canal
and apparently reaching to the outside of the scale insect, and
containing small granular bodies. There w-ere several para-
sites present, but only one had developed.

On Cinnamonium zeylanicUy Moms sp., and Brousonettia
papyrifera, in the last case buried in tho bark.

110

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

Aulacaspis barberi, Gr.

M. D. A. I., Vol. II., No. 2, p. 35.

On Loranthus sp. growing on Avocada Pear, Peratleniya,
June 18, 1913.

Median lobes slightly divergent. Apex of mesal half of
second lobe obliquely truncate, slightly incised ; lateral half
small and pointed. Third lobos present on nne side, smaU,
not duplex. Laterad of third lobes are several serrated
projections, those associated with gland pores being large and
prominent. Plates 1, 1, 1 or 2, 2, 3.

Circumgenital pores 8 (17 and 15) (17 and 17).

Two dorsal pores immediately laterad of the circumgenital
pores.

On Loranthus sp. growing on Cassia nodosa, Peradeniya,
Junes, 1914.

Female scale on petiole. Secretion grayish-white, exuvise
reddish-brown, situated just within margin. Scale highly
convex.

Male scales in hundreds on under surface of same haf.
Exuvise yellovish-brown, secretion white, with faint median
Carina. Scales lying flat on leaf, the exuvise all pointing
towards base of leaf. Antenna cf adult female a tubercle
bearing a short spine apically and a long .seta laterally.
Anterior spiracles with from 5 to 11 parastigmatic pc res.

Three dorsal pores immediately laterad of circumgenital
pores, Mesal half of second lobe dilated, rounded at apex ;
lateral half absent or small and pointed.

Circumgenital pores 6 (12 and 18) (24 and 25) ; 7 (20 and 16)
(22 and 21 ) ; 10 (22 and 22) (22 and 20). Median circumgenital
pores in a transverse row or in a bunch.

CniOCOCCUS (ARArCARIA3, Mask. ?).

harm , an ten n a w i th 7 segmen ts , th I r d I o n gest . Body with a
fringe of stout, conical, truncate spines on the dorsal side, and
a fringe of slender pointed spines ventrally. Derm mamil-
lated. Small pores and larger ring-like pores scattered over
dorsum. Venter covered with .slender setae and circular pores.
Tarsi of first logs longer than tibiae, of almost the same length

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCIDA:.

Ill

as tife the second and third pairs. Anal ring with 8 setae.
Anal lobe with two shoulders near the base, eaeh bearing a
stout, conical, truncate spine ; another lobe on mesal margin
near apex also bearing a spine. A long seta on apex of lobe.
Xwo large setse and several smaller setae on venter of anal
lobes.

On Araucaria cooHi, Perarieniya.

Aspidiotus heder.^, Vail.

On leai of Artocarpus intcgrifoUa^ Peradeniya.

Scale circular, yellow, transparent. Mounted insect tapering
rapidly towards the posterior end ; pygidium small, the
extreme apex rather suddenly truncated. The body contains
yellowish eggs.

The median Jobes are broader in comparison with their
length than in Aspidiotus transparens, Gr. (Coccidae of Ceylon,
Pt. I., p. 49) ; they are rounded at the apex and distinctly
notched on both sides, the mesal notch being caudad of the
lateral. The second lobes are narrow*er than the median,
longer than broad, rounded at apex, slightly notched on both
sides. The third lobes are slightly narrower than the second,
are longer than broad, rounded at apex, and notched on the
lateral side. Laterad of the third lobes are about seven or
eight short, broad pectinac, deeply pectinate at apex, not so
distinctly produced on the mesal side as in Green’s figure of
d. transparens, Gr. Dorsal pores in more or less regular rows
running cephalad from the margin of the pygidium. Anus as
in Green’s figure of A . transparens as regards shape and position.
Circumgenital pores (13 and 11) (9 and 10), those of each group
in two more or less distinct longitudinal rows.

PROTOPULVINARTA LONOIVALVATA, Gr.

Coccidae of Ceylon, Pt. IV., p. 254.

On Gardenia latijolia. In fresh specimens the dorsum is
seen to bear wax -plates of the form of those in Paralecanium
f^xpansum, Gr. The marginal, dark -coloured zone is very
distinct.

112

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The eighth segment of the antenna is the longest, while the
second is slightly longer than the third. The tarsus is shorter
than the tibia, and in the first pair of legs is distinctly con-
stricted distad of its middle. The marginal hairs are dilated
at the base and apex and extend for half their length beyond
the claw. Tarsal hairs long and knobbed at apex. Four
small “ fringe set®,” two on each side.

On Guava. Eighth segment of the antenna the longest, and
the second is fully as long as the third.

PsEUnOPARLATORIA PARLATORIOIDES, Comst.

On leaves of Guava.

Scale circular, pale yellow, transparent ; exuvia large,
situated towards one side.

Three pairs of lobes. Median lobes well separated, each
with sides parallel towards base ; abruptly narrowed towards
apex, which is rounded. Second and third lobes duplex, each
part usually notched at least on the lateral side. There is a pair
of short diverging plates united at base between the median
lobes. There is a plate laterad of the median and second
lobes and two small spinous processes on the margin of the
pygidium cephalad of the third lobes. There is a prominent
pore-opening laterad of the median, second, and third lobes,
and a fourth on the base of the mesal half of the third lobe.

Anus conspicuous and not far from apex of pygidium.

Circumgenital pores (12 and 12) (7 and 8).

The pygidium of the second exuvium is very similar to that
of the adult, except that the third pair of lobes is absent
The pygidium of the first exuvium hears a pair of minute
hyaline lobes, widely separated and abruptly narrowed
towards apex.

There is a stout plate laterad of each lobe and two or three
similar plates more cephalad.

Chionaspis simplex, Gr.

Coccidse of Ceylon, Pt. IL, p. 160.

Underneath leaf sheaths of small bamboo (? Dendrocalamus
sp.) at Peradeniya. Pygidium without lobes, asymmetrical,
with small crenulations only and a few short setae.

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCIDiE.

113

Pores of exterior spiracles 6-8, of posterior none. Antenna
a tubercle bearing two setae. Anal opening situated just
cephalad of the anterior group of circumgenital pores, the
vagina at the level of the interval between the cephalo-
lateral and caudo-lateral groups of circumgenital pores.
Numerous small glands opening on pygidium. Numerous
curved striae all over body. Chitinous bands run cephalad
from the apex of the pygidium.

Circumgenital pores in five compact groups, 23 (30 and 39)
(37 and 47),

This insect resembles Green’s insect from Mauritius, which,
he states, resembles in every way, except in number of groups
of circumgenital pores, his C. simplex. Green may have
colonized this insect at Peradoniya.

OhIONASFLS HERBiE, Gr.

Under leaf sheaths of Panicum sp .

’Hie median lobes are sunk in a slight cleft, and are finely
but distinctly serrated on the mesal margin.

The number of circumgenital pores in the speeimen I have
seen is fewer than that given by Green ; 17 (27 and 30) (30 and
25) ; 15 (29 and 32) (27 and 30) ; 14 (33 and 38) (31 and 33).

The antenna is a tubercle bearing a single seta.

Fioeinia riORiNi,®, Targ. Tozz., Green.

Coccidaj of Ceylon, Pt. 1., p. 94.

Male. Scale white, with a slight median carina sometimes
visible towards the posterior end. Exuvium yellowish-brown.
Scale surrounded by powdery wax.

On Cupressus sp.

The antennse of the female are very variable in shape and size ;
generally they consist of a broad, sometimes quadrangular,
tubercle, inunded, pointed, or notched at the apex, and bearing
a stout curved seta near the base. I have never seen them
showing the regularity represented in Green’s figure. Anterior
spiracles with about 5 parastigmatic pores.

The marginal abdominal tubercles are blunt at apex (on
Turpinia sp.).

114

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Tho median lobes are situated in a cleft, narrow, tapering,
strongly divergent, pointed, distinctly free at apex and serrated
along the mesal margin and at the apex.

The second lobes are duplex. The mesal half may be
almost twice as broad as the lateral half, which may be well
developed or minute (Tur-plnia ) ; the mesal half may project
caudaUy as far as the apex of the median lobes and may be
slightly serrated on the lateral margin (Avocado Pear). Both
halves arc usually rounded at the apex.

There are two short setse between the median lobes, a seta
on the lateral side of the median lobes, a seta and a plate
laterad of the median lobes. Thereafter in succession a
prominent gland-pore, tho second lobe with a seta on the base
of its lateral half, a long plate broad at the base and abruptly
narrowed thereafter, a prominent gland-pore, and three more
gland-pores at intervals on the margin of the pygidium, the
most anterior small, a seta being associated with the first of
the three, and another lying near the third. No plat^ visible
cephalad of the one laterad of the second lobes [Cuprtssus sp.).

In an insect from Turpinia sp. the setae between the median
lobes project beyond the lobes.

The number of gland pores on the pygidium is variable,
though four appears to be the rule. In an insect from Avocado
Pear only three could be made out on each side, one laterad
of the median lobes, one laterad of the second lobes, and one
slightly caudad of the level of the posterior end of the caudo-
lateral group of circumgenital pores ; and on one side the
last -mentioned pore y^as either absent or so much reduced as
to be unrecognizable as such.

In an insect from Walsura piscidia there was a plate cephalad
of the third gland-pore and having a seta mesad of it.

Circumgenital pores. Median in a distinct group : 8 (9 and
5) (13 and 15), Walsura, Median group distinctly isolated :
3 (12 and 11) (11 and 13) ; 2 of the 11 of the posterior group
situated midway between the anterior and the posterior groups
{Turpinia), Median group of 8 in a double transverse row ;
Host ?

Median and anterior-lateral groups practically in a con-
tinuous arch, 5 (9 and 10) (13 and 13) ; 6 (9 and 8) (12 and 12);

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCIO.E.

115

}<kigenia sp. Pores practically in a continuous arch : 7 (9 and
7) (12 and 12) ; 5 (11 and 9) (11 and 12) ; 6 (6 and 6) (5 and 10).
Avocado Pear.

Median group distinct or continuous with the anterior
groups ; anterior and posterior groups massed or separated.
A median group showed 7 pores partly in a single and partly
in a double transverse row. Cupressus.

Anus just caudad of the median group of cinnimgenital
pores. Vagina in a line botw^een the break in the lateral
groups of circumgenital pores. {Turpinia,)

The second cxuvium inay have both halves of the second
lobe -well developed, and laterad of the second lobe is the lobe-
like projection of a gland-pore, liaterad of this is a series of
4 or 5 serrated projections and still farther laterad 2 short
plates. There ai'O at least 5 gland-pores opening on the margin
of the pygidium. There is a prominent seta on the lateral
half of the second lobe. {Turpinia.)

Larva with two ohitinous processes mcso-caudad of the base
of the antenna {Ewjmia). In the larval exuvium two clear
areas in corresponding position (Host ?).

Larva with two set* projecting cephalad betw'een the
antenna,

Apex of the pygidium with 2 minute, widely -separated
lobes, and laterad of these two long plates, the one more
caudad the larger.

There are several small set* between the lobes, and two
situated cophalo-mesally of the base of the lobes and con-
vergent caudally. [Eugenia sp.)

b

6(8)15

It is with deep regret that we record the death of Mr. Andrew
Rutherford, Government Entomologist, which occurred unex'
pectedly on February 3, after a brief illness. Mr. Rutherford
was appointed in March, 1913, and though his career in Ceylon
has been prematurely brought to a close, it was sufficient to
demonstrate to his colleagues his thorough grasp of his subject
and keen devotion to the furtherance of entomologic alkno wledge .

Mr. Rutherford held the degrees of M.A. and B.Sc. of
Edinburgh University. For some time he was Professor of
Biology at the Agricultural College, Cirencester, and afterwards
Lecturer in Zoology and Botany at University College, Cardiff.
Obtaining a Carnegie Studentship he proceeded to America and
studied entomology at Cornell University. ' While in America
he visited Trinidad, and travelled through the United States
in order to obtain a first-hand know^ledge of field entomology
as conducted in admittedly the best and most highly organized
entomological service in the world. It may bo questioned
whether Great Britain has ever sent out to the Colonies a
man who had so thoroughly equipped himself for his work.

Mr. Rutherford devoted himself, especially in Ceylon, to the
collection and study of injurious insects and their parasites,
and had laid the foundation for a complete literature relating
to such as affect Ceylon plants. The large collections which
he amassed were submitted to specialists in Europe and
America, where his work was well known and appreciated.
In his special subject, Coccidae, he had already gained a wide
reputation, and w^as consulted by entomologists in all parts
of the East. These labours were just beginning to bear fruit,
as is evidenced by his Papers in the Tropical Agriculturist,
the Bulletin of Entomological Research, the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society, and Spolia Zoylanica,
though these represent but a small fraction of the results
which would naturally have accrued.

Scientific by training and inclination, Mr, Rutherford
abhorred slipshod work and unsupported hypotheses ; he
subjected his own w^ork to the most rigorous scrutiny, and
expected others to do the same. His loss is deplored not only
in Ceylon, but also by a wide circle of personal friends and
co-workers in Europe and America.

Peradeniya, July, 1915.

TWO ABERRATIONS OP CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 117

NOTK ON TWO ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON
BUTTERFLIES.

By G, M. Henry,

Assistant in Systematic Entomology, Colombo Museum,
{With one plate.)

1. Telchinia violas, Fabr. — This specimen was prosonted
to the Colombo Museum recently by Mr. G. W. Halkett, who
caught it in November, 1913, between Kurunegala and Matalo,
on Delwita estate. It is an interesting aberration of this
common butterfly, and differs from the normal in the following
points : —

Fore-wing, upper side . — The usual spots and streaks in and
hoyond tho coll are merged in a largo, rather ill-defined dark
patch, which occupies almost the wholo of the cell and
extends to tho usual position of tho black spots in spaces
4, 5, 6, and 10. Tho black spots in interspaces 1 and 3 are
replaced by long irregular dark patches, and there is a similar
patch in interspace 2, In other respects the fore -wing is
nonnal.

Ilind-wing, upper side. — There is a much larger black spot
than usual in interspace 7. Tho spot in interspace 3 is absent.
The spot in intorspaco 2 is obsolescent in the loft wing, but
well marked in the right. There is a small spot at the point
where vein 6 leaves the coll. Tho light spots in the interspaces
of the black terminal band are confluent with the ta^vny of
the disc of the wing. The black band thus becomes a series
of dentate marks at the veins.

Fore-wing j under side. — This does not greatly differ from
fho normal, but the largo black patches on tho upper side show
through the wing, producing a dusky appearance.

^lind-wing, under side. — All the spots anterior to the middle
of the cell aro much nularged. Tho spots in interspaces la.

U8

SPOLFA ZEYLANICA.

16, 1, 3, and 5 are absent. The large whitish spots in the
terminal black band are confluent with the colour of the
disc, as on the upper side. The head, thorax, and abdomen
are normal.

The flgure should make these points clear.

2. Pyrameis cardui, Linn. — I caught a curious aberra-
tion of this species at Scarborough estate, Maakeliya, on
October 20, 1913. Many normal specimens of the species
were flying about at the time. It may be described as
follows : —

Fore-iviny, upper side . — The irregular black band which in
normal specimens crosses interspaces 1 and 2 and projects
into the cell is absent, its place being taken by the tawny of
the ground colour. Instead of the normal two rows of white
spots in the black apical area, there is a single row of five
large ill -defined white spots. This row is continued down
towards the tomus by small obsolescent whitish spots in
interspaces 1 and 2. The black terminal band is broader
than in the normal, and very ill-defined proximally.

HM-mngy upper sj'de.— The dusky brown area at the basal
half of the wing is very restricted in area. The row of round
black spots in interspaces 2 to 6 is absent, and is replaced by
a row of ill-defined white spots. There is a white spot in
interspace 1 belonging to the same row. The inner terminal
row of black lunules is absent.

Fore-mng., under side . — The difforoncos here are practically
the same as on the upper side. All the black markings are
paler and less well-defined than in normal specimens. There
are no white spots in the apical area.

Hind-winy.^ under side . — The row of ocelli in interspaces 2 to fi
is represented by tw'o obsolescent ones in interspaces 2 and
only. The dark subterminal lunuios are absent, and the bold
marblings of the normal P. cardui are reduced to a few ill-
defined smudges.

The specimen was sent to Mr. E. E. Green in England,
who has not yet returned it. I have described it from my
coloured drawing, made before the specimen was sent to
Mr. Green.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

119

NOTES ON ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE IN THE
VEDDA COUNTRY.

By Frederick Lewis, F.L.S.

( With one map.)

T he locality to which these notes apply represents the
whole of the Maha Wedirata, the eastern half of the
Buttala-Wedirata, and the southern half of the Panawa
Pattu of the Eastern Province.

This large extent of country falls within part of Uva from
the Monaragala range eastwards, and, as indicated above,
part of the Eastern Province, or more specifically within the
following rough boundaries. Starting from the conspicuous
needle -pointed mountain called Wadinagala on the north,
it follows the provincial limits of the Eastern Provnico to
the point whore it crosses the Government cart road from
Potuvil to Muppane. From that point the road to Muppane
is adoptod as far at Potuvil, from thence following the sea-
coast to Kumuna on tho banks of the Kumbukkaii river.

Next the Kumbukkan river is followed to a point called
Kebilitto, at tho foot of the imposing mass of rock showni on
the Admiralty charts as Chimney Hill.” From here, a
lino drawn to Sirigala and thence to Wadinagala encloses
the whole.

Within this area there is only one perennial river — the
Kunibukkan-aar, which forms tho southern limit of tho
region in question. The next largest stream is the Heda-oya,
which in the north-east monsoon is a wide and formidable
nver. To the north the Lankiya-oya is an important stream,
which is supplemented by several considerable branches that
after uniting with it form a great branch of tho Namal-oya.

The Govmdu-oya, rising on the east flank of tho “ West-
miiistor Abbey,” forms a useful branch of tho Karandi-oya
that drains the eastern half of the Maha Wedirata country.

120

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

while the Wila-oya and Kulapan-oya convey the watei^ from
the eastern limits of the Buttala-Weclirata to the sea through
the Panawa Pattu.

The chief mountains are Wadinagala (2,414 ft.), West-
minster Abbey ” (1,830 ft.), Degalhella, Nilgala, Hibitalana-
gala, Kiripokunagala, Chimney Hill,’’ and Obbekota in the
Monaragala range.

Most of these mountains rise abruptly from the plains
below, and terminate in high masses of rook. There are, in
some cases — particularly on the summit of “ Westminster
Abbey ” — small patches of vegetation, but in the majority the
summits of the more conspicuous hills are bare. The country
described, therefore, may, broadly speaking, be considered as
flat, broken by a few low undulations, the whole being dotted
over irregularly with abrupt mountainous masses of rock.

The rainfall of this area is comparatively low, and probably
does not exceed an average of 60 inches for the year, nearly
the whole of which falls in the north-east monsoon, thus
involving a period of extreme drought during the south-west
monsoon, when for months there is not a drop of rain, followed
by torrential showers of variable intensity and uneven distri-
bution.

I am indebted to Mr. Balfour, the Director of Irrigation,
for the details of rainfall at Aiupari and Rotawewa,* well
outside the area I refer to, and to the Surveyor-Genoralf for
the same particulars at Monaragala, these being given in
tabular form in the Appendix.

As might be anticipated from such variation and extreme,
it would follow that the vegetation of the country embraced
must be, for the most part, what is called dry -zone flora,
but other influences have to be considered in relation to
distribution. These may be considered as being affected —

(fl) By influence of streams rising in high altitudes, or in
moister regions ;

(6) By the' operations of human beings ;

(c) By animal transport of seed ;

(d) By wind action.

* Appendix A. t Appendix B.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

121

Before passing to a brief detailed investigation of the
influences roughly classified as above, it may not be out of
place to examine the historical records that apply to the
area at the moment under consideration. Thus, we find
Arugam Bay corresponds to Mardi, or Morduli Portus, in the
time of Ptolemy. Okanda Bay is the same as Bocana — as
the sound nearly implies- ; Kumuna, according to the Sanskrit,
is the same as Gonagrarauka ; while the Kumbukkan river
appears in Ptolemy’s time to have been called Baracus fluvius.

From this it may be inferred that at least two bays on
our easteni coast, south of Batticaloa, w^ere known to the
Komans, in addition to the perennial Kumbukkan -aar, and it
may be deduced with probable certainty that these bays were
ports of call, while the Kumbukkan river was more than
likely to have been well known as being the one spot on the
east coast where fresh water could always be obtained in both
monsoons, for trading boats of light draught.

From this circumstance alone it is probable that the traders
of the Roman period had dealings at Kumuna, while Okanda
and Arugam Bays both offered a safe anchorage to the traders’
vessels.

The whole of the Panawa Pattu from a point south of
Komari was included in the region called in Sanskrit times
Lambakania, which, according to Pliny and Ptolemy’s map,
covered Booani, of which Bocana (— Okanda) was the port.

Passing to more modern maps, w^e find about 1681
Knox gives Pott in for Pottuvil ; Coemena for Kumuna ; and
Konokan-aar for the Kumbukkan, showing that these places
had, up to that time, sufficient importance to find their
recognition in maps of the day, Knox, moreover, distinctly
shows Pannoa or Panova Regnum, implying that that part of
the country was under a sovereign at that time, insignificant
though he may have been.

This evidence, however, which might be elaborated but
for pressure on the space of this Paper, points to the definite
conclusion that for a considerable period a large extent of
our eastern coast was well known, even to the traders of the
western world, and we must anticipate, therefore, that in
the course of that trade there would be an exchange of

122

SPOLTA ZBYLANICA.

coininodifcies which would produce both directly and indirectly
its efiect upon local plant life, either by the introduction of
species of economic value, or by the direct export of woods
found at hand.

In support of this it is noticeable that to the north-west of
Pottuvil, Palu {Mimusops luxaiidra) and Satinwood {Chloroxy-
lon swieUnia) are comparatively abundant, as contrasted with
the scarcity of the same species on the banks of the Kumbiikkan
river. Again, while Mi [Bassia longifolia) is abundant on
the Kumbukkan, it may be called rare west of Pottuvil. As
this last-named is an introduction of great value, it was spared
where it existed near towns, but was neglected in those loca-
lities where the population had no permanent settlement, as
we find is the case with the majority of the Maha Wediratn
“ villages ” of the present day, and it is only in some places
of old establishment that we find the Mi tree now.

The present population is very much scattered, its distri-
bution being undoubtedly governed by the presence or
absence of water; hence it will be found that the so-called
villages are at considerable distances apart, and only where
a supply of w'ater can be got, however small or impure,
all the year round. On the other hand, one finds the example
of an unpopulated area bounded by a perennial stream, as
in the case of the valley of the Kumbukkan river for the
last thirty miles of its couree. Here, however, we have the
instance of a stream that rises to an enormous flood that
inundates the country to a depth of many feet on both its
banks, thus drowning out, in the wet season, any annual
cultivation, and leaving the place parched and dry during
the periods of drought — two factors sufficient to keep back
a people unprepared to establish strong measures to secure
permanent occupation.

Nor is this all. The Kumhukkan river, after it passes the
foot of the isolated mass of the Monaragala hills, enters a
country that afforded the Veddas their best hunting ground,
and the Veddas appear in their early history to have been a
race of people who depended almost entirely on the chase,
using for their dwellings the rudest shelters of oaves and
temporary branch hubs. They had no inducement to build

ANIMAL AN[> PLANT lAYH,

123

louses of lasting character, as neither their instincts nor
labits necessitated such procedure.

At Kumuna alone we find a modification of these conditions,
n that the greater part of the land where the village stood is
ibove flood level, and possessed of constant fresh water all
the year round, besides being at a spot where there was a
prospect of trade.

It should be added that all the many anicuts on this river
between Kumuna and Kebilitte bear silent testimony to the
violence of the floods on the river, and to the once existence
of a large population, that probably vanished as soon as these
engineering works were destroyed — a population who could
enjoy the benefit of the river’s floodings by diverting the water
into immense tanks, that now are but park -like pieces of jungle.

The present inhabitants of tho region embraced within the
boundaries recorded here are unquestionably of mixed origin,
as it is easy to trace on the western limits the pure Sinhal^e
type of feature, those fading again to a more specific type
through the Maha Wedirata, and again changing markedly
on the north-east of that country, till it is practically
replaced by Tamils in the Panawa Pattu. Thus, it would
seem that the Vedda typo lay between the Uvan Sinhalese
on the west and the Tamil on the east, with the result that
frequently one would hear men, while asserting that they
were pure Sinhalese, conversing with each other in Tamil.
This I found to be actually the case at Bowela, where the
villagers insisted that they were of the Goigama caste.

I was completely baffled in my attempts to secure a voca-
bulary of Vedda words, though I offered liberal payment
for a few lessons in that language. I was pointed out men
who were able to speak Vedda, and it was arranged that we
should meet, in secret, at a definite time, and at a fixed spot,
but when the time came I was told the men had gone away
to find stray cattle, or some other equally trumped-up
story.

One night I caanpod close to some huts in the village of
VVattegama, and after my lamp had been put out and I was
supposed to be asleep, I heard an animated discussion in the
nearest hut, but though I could hear every word, I did not
7 6(8)15

124

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

recognize a single expression . The following morning I taxed
the people with speaking in Vedda language, but they stoutly
declared that they could only speak Sinhalese.

In my opinion the majority ol the people of the Maha
Wedirata are of Vedda origin, but have discarded their
primitive customs as they dwindled in numbers, and while
other causes, such avS marriage with neighbouring people,
tended to still further break down the older customs of the
isolated clans that made up the Vedda race as a whole, they
still clung in secret to the language of their forefathers, as a
binding link and a means of private communication.

At Salavai, in the Panawa Pattu, I found one family who
admitted that their grandfather was a real Vedda, belonging
to one of the clans occupying the country on the confines of
the Kumbukkan ri^er.

Prom the oldest member of this family I obtained a mass
of information respecting the habits and customs of the Vedda
people.

According to this individual, who has adopted the Sinhalese
name of Dissan Hamy, the Veddas were divided up into a
number of waruge or clans, each of which occupied and
hunted over a specific area of country, and had no connection
with the others who lived as uepiurate communities.

The memherB of each clan were more or less related, and
previous to the disintegration of the Veddas as a race, they
could not marry any but members of the same waruge.

They lived by hunting, in which only the males took part.
Their habitations were caves, and occasionally leaf shelters,
but the latter was uncommon.

The females were kept in a state of rigid subjection to the
males , and could not take part in the chase, ordinary
ceremonials, or conversation ^h any but those who were
immediate relations, or the closest relatives of the husband.

If the husband was pleased to throw some meat to his wife,
as part of his spoil in the chase, that was all the woman was
entitled to. She could not claim a share simply because she
was the man’s wife.

Under ordinary circumstances, both the males and females
were naked, assuming only for special occasions a loin cloth

animal and plant life. ]25

of the baxk of the Kitti {Antiaris tODdcaria) for males, and a
.sort of leaf -skirt for the females.

No jewellery was worn by the males or females. Sometimes
a necklace made of shells Bellan ”) was worn by the yOunger
females, but such things as rings were unknown to the earlier
VeddavS.

They had no idea of time beyond the subdivision of the 24
hours into two divisions, viz., that of light and darkness.
Other than this there was no computation except a man’s
knowledge of a certain striking event that happened in his
“ small time,” but how long ago that was could not be stated.

The taking of a woman to wife required mainly the sanction
of the girl’s father, after which a few exchanges might be
made in significathni of the consent of parties. After this
the man and woman lived together, while before they would
not so much as dare speak to one another in public, unless
related.

The ago of the woman was invariably extremely youthful
at the time of her marriage,” and even at the present day,
notwithstanding the comparative civilization of the modem
Vedda descendants, youthful marriages still prevail .

I found in response to my inquiries in all parts of the Vedda
country that I visited, that 12 years was a common age for a
girl to be taken to wife at. In one village I was present at
an inquiry by a headman into a case where the girl was only 8.
In this case the headman expressed the opinion that the
marriage was “ very bad.”

My informant told me that with the Veddas there was no
custom for the woman, when about to give birth to a child,
to go to a separate house or hut for the purpose, but that this
custom had only come in later.

Among the Veddas there was no such thing as prostitution,
nor could I learn that there was polyandry.

The bearing age of women would be at about 14, that of
puberty being a year earlier.

Women would have children up to about 28, and as might
he expected from the condition cf youthful cohabitation for
one or two years prior to puberty, the proportion of males
ond females in a family would be pretty nearly equal. On

126

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the other hand, the mortality would be very considerable
among the offspring. This mortality, when infantile, would
generally be among the first bom and last bom, owing to
maternal immaturity in the first case and constitutional
depletion in the last. ,

On the question of sex I found that the prevalent idea was
that if a wife was not thoroughly obedient to her husband
she would invariably give birth to females, and it was only
complete subjection to the husband’s will that could securo
a preponderance of males.

I could get no information on the subject of barrenness or
sterility.

As regards the religion of the Veddas previous to their
modernization, it appears that they believed in certain

Yakko,” who exercised certain influences for good or evil.
There was no conception of a Supreme Creator. On the other
hand, the “ Yakko ” possessed, in common with humanity,
a tendency to favour ; so that it was always possible to secure
its influence in return for special molifying ceremonies. Thus,
by certain incantations, ceremonial offerings, or honorific
declarations, the Yakko who exercised specific powers could
be induced to subtend influence to the advantage of the
individual then desiring it. Thas, the Yakka who guarded
the deer might be induced to direct the deer to come within
the reach of the Vedda’s bow and arrows. On the other
hand, another Yakka might be propitiated so as to render
the hunter invisible to the leopard, so that the hunter would
escape harm.

Special incantations were supposed to render an individual
successful in the chase, so that his aim would be deadly, or
that more game would come his way.

Again, disease or sickness was the direct outcome of certain
malign Yakko, who could be propitiated, and this was specially
to be considered when a woman was pregnant, so that the
evil might be diverted from the unborn child.

I was not able to discover from my informant if the Veddas
in their primitive times had any definite form of agriculture.
It is certain that they were acquainted with rice, but I could
not ascertain how it was procured.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

127

Equally they were acquainted with tobacco and betel, for
I was shown a place where the Veddas established a toll that
was paid usually in these particular commodities.

The dog was the only domestic animal reared by the Vedda,
and special names were given to these pets.

The Veddas appeared to have no knowledge of melting iron
for the manufacture of their particular implements, which
consisted of tho bow and arrow, the spear, and the small axe,
or hatchet. Arrow and spear-heads were procured by barter ;
the method of procedure was to clear a small space round
the foot of a tree by the wayside leading to a village known to
contain smiths . Here tho Vedda would hang up to the branch
of a tree a vessel containing honey, or a piece of meat, which
would be taken by the smith, who in return would hang up an
arrow-head.

It was understood by both that the quantity or number of
articles required would be represented by the number of
parcels of meat or honey. Should the smith, however, take
the meat and not leave the arrow-heads that were thus
silently requisitioned, he would pay the penalty with his life,
or some of his animals would be shot by the defrauded Vedda,

The bow was usually made from the wood of the Dunu-
madala {Stereospermum chelonioides) and of the Bignoniacese.
It was not always of the same length, as this appears to have
depended on the springiness of the wood. The arrow was
generally about 4 ft. long, or as much as a man could draw the
bow to. The arrow-head appears to have been small, large
arrow-heads being for ceremonial purposes only.

Fire was obtained by spinning, under moderate pressure, a
vertical rod of Welanga wood {Pterospermum mberifolium) on
a flat piece of wood of the same species, with tho point of the
former surrounded by floss, or some quickly inflammable
material. Later, tbe flint and steel were found more effective.
One example of a flint and steel was shown to mo at Panawa,
and I tried to purchase it at the owner’s valuation, but I found
he was most reluctant to sell. I understood that the flint and
i^toel, a lock of hair, and a fragment of cloth represented a title
deed, these being given by a dying man to his heir, or adopted
heir, as a mode or evidence of transfer.

128

SPOLIA ZEYIiANICA.

According to my authority the Veddas induiged in no
games, unless, indeed, the custom of tossing drj^ leaves in the
air and speculating on their position when they fell baok upon
the ground could be called a game. This, I am told, was only
an occasional recreation, and indulged in by boys alone.

The limits of the hunting ground were jealously guarded by
the Veddas, and anything like poaching by the members of
one clan in the area recognized as belonging to another was
punishable by death. Should a hunter lose his way and fall
into the hands of a neighbouring clan, he would be closely
watched, remaining for the time being in a sort of captivity.
If the man's conduct during that time was such as to disarm
suspicion he was permitted to go, and might even be accom-
panied to the confines of the clan’s hunting ground, but he
would have to proceed at once without looking back, or his
conduct might lead to the belief that he was a spy, with fatal
consequences.

The method of fishing was to hem in a piece of water by
closely fencing in both ends of the stream. People would
then enter the enclosed piece of water, armed with slender
sticks, thrashing the water therewith till a fish was actually
.struck, when it would be captured. 1 saw this actually done
in one pool on the Kumbukkan.

My informant told me that the Veddas were at one time
harassed by a race of pygmy people, called the Nittawo, who
Jived in the country known as Leiiama, that extended from
Bagura in the Panawa Pattu in the east to the confines of the
Kattaragama hills on the west.

According to him, these people lived in small troops of from
10 to 40, inhabiting caves, hollow trees, and crevices of
precipices. They were about 3 feet or a httle more in height,
exactly like normal human beings, only in miniature. Their
legs were hairy like those of the Wanduroo ; they walked
erect, and had no tails.

Their arms were short and very powerful, with strong hands,
and talon-like finger-nails with which they tore and dis-
embowelled whatever they captured. These generally were
small animals, such as hare, mouse-deer, monkeys, iguanas,
and tortoises. Their method of attack was by surrounding

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

129

the prey, especially if it was sleeping. In this way the Veddas
occasionally fell victims, and in consequence they revenged
themselves by exterminating the Pygmies. According to my
authority, the Nittawo existed at the time of his grandfather,
who, he asserted, took an active part with the other members
of his clan in burning out one of their encampments.

The Nittawo were an entirely naked race ; the females
were shorter than the males. Their language appears to
have been understood by the Veddas, and was described to me
as like the twittering of birds.

My informant knew nothing of their customs, or if they
made use of fire. Thoy w'ere, however, unarmed, and apjiear
to have been finally exterminated by the Veddas about three
or four generations ago.

I may here mention that as I was sceptical as to the story
about this race, I took particular care to make inquiries at the
distant village of Waradeniyawa (the furthest inhabited spot
on the south of the Buttala-Wodirata) if the oldest inhab^
itant of that place could give me any confirmation of it. This
inquiry w^as made w^hen Bissau Hamy was not present, and it
would have been impossible for my questions to have been
anticipated- To my surprise, a very old man of the village
completely confirmed in detail Bissau Hamy’s description.

. I also made further inquiry at another village from a head-
man, and he repeated the same story, adding that the Nittaw^o
were destroyed by the Veddas out of fear.

It is difficult to reject as false a story, told devoid of the
usual fantastic embellishments that characterize the history
of mythical creatures such as Yakko, when it is completely
confirmed by parties ignorant of what the others have said.
Kven though tangible evidence is not forthcoming, and it
would be difficult to find any, of a people so primitive as these
creatures appear to have been, I see no valid reason for
disbelieving the statements made to me.

It would appear that the early Vedda and the Nittawo to
some extent lived side by side, and both were primitive. In
time the Nittawo were destroyed by a race w’ho were armed,
and these in turn were disintegrated and absorbed by forces
they were powerless to overcome. The clan system was

130

SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

eifectual so long as there were no influences to weajsen it, but
when once a preponderating force came to surround these
clans, their chance of survival was small, and to prevent
individual extinction amalgamation presented the path of
minimum resistance.

The effect of this amalgamation' was to break down the
primitive methods, and concurrently to infuse new blood, and
with it to stay, or lessen, the forces that were weakening an
already over-inbred stock.

If w^e refer to certain statistics, as recently as 1840 we find
that a rough enumeration of the so-called Rook-Veddas
disclosed that only thirty families in Bintenna then existed.

Since then the increase ot civilized races pressed with yearly
greater insistence, till we are forced to conclude that the
primitive Vedda is now no. more, or nearly so.

In my Paper read at the meeting of the Ceylon Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society on Soptembor 19, 1914, I have
described the features of the Vedda family I found at Setawa,
blit I venture here to repeat it for easy reference.

The man Dissan Hamy is about 5 ft. 10 in. in height,
thin, small round the chest, with rather short arms, slender
legs, wdth hardly any calf development. He does not know
his age. His head is small, with small dark-brown beady eyes
set far back in their sockets. His hair is short, not tied in a
knot, staring, and frizzy. His younger brother is shorter in
stature, but with the same character of hair on the head.
The elder has short, scanty, and bristly moustaches, but in
both brothers there is a marked scarcity of hair on the face
and body. Dissan Hamy’s two sisters are both of normal
height, and dross like the other women of the country. They
are about 5 ft. 3 in. in height, with slender limbs . Both women
are raotheis, and both indicated the small breast develop-
ment that appears to be characteristic of women residing
in the arid parts of the country I explored.- In both women
the hair is short and frizzy. Their infants had shaved heads.

I remarked that the skin of Dies an Hamy’s body is darker
than that of the other membere of the family. The nose is
strongly formed, with thin dilated nostrils. The mouth is
rather wide, with lips of no unusual thickness.

ANIMAL AND PIANT LINK.

131

I remarked that while walking through the jungle, though
provided with a knife, Dist^an Hainy rarely used it to cut away
any intercepting branch or creeper, these being invariably
bent to one side by the hand.

I observed this custom many years ago when travelling
through a distant village called Uda Wellaw^ey at the foot of
the Haldummulla hills, and I understand it is to prevent
persons from finding a hunter’s trail,

I made inquiry, in addition to direct observation while
exploring the Vedda country, as to the pi-evaiUng diseases
among the inhabitants, and what was done as regards remedies.
The result cf my investigation led me to conclude that the
commonest disease among adults was fev^er, but I could get
no statistics on which I could rely to form an opinion as to
the percent ago this particular disease afforded as compared
with others.

It was, how'cver, difficult to discriminate in what proportion
of fevers t}q)hoid was to be regarded, as I found in many cases
the people did not know' the difference. Dysentery appears to
be well known, and is locally called Le-pachchane,’’ but I
was told that it was not nearly so common as fever. Fever is
not common as compared Avith tlie prevalence of that disease
in the Tamankaduwa District.

Venereal, I am told, is unknown, and probably for reasons
I gave earlier in this PajAcr. It occurs, however, more in the
neighbourhood of civilized centres. I did not see a single
instance of goitre, or of elephantiasis, though I caimot suppose
the latter is unknowm. I found numerous cases of sores on
the feet and legs of both adults and children, but these were
explained as lieing in all cases due to accidental injuries.
Bronchitis, however, is common, more especially in cliildren,
who also appear to be commonly troubled with anmmia, Avhich
may or may not be directly duo to intestinal parasites.

^ As regards treatment, I found that the remedy Avas invari-
ably based on the theory that diseases may be divided into
tAvo great classes — heating or inflammatory, and the opposite
therefore the euro was to be found in those specifics Avhich
were opposed to these two heads of causation. For example,
if a man had a violent cold, the ‘‘ milk ” of the coconut could

132

SrOLIA ZEYLANICA.

not be drunk. Again, in case of fever a decoction would be
given of a number of vegetable productions that were believed
to be cooling. I may here mention that when questioned as
to tho exact effect any one of these ingredients would speci-
fically bring about, I could get no clear answer. I found that
both Cassia auriculuta and Evolmlm alsinoides were regarded
as most beneficial in fever, but I failed to find an answer as
to their direct action. Equally Munronia pamila would be
considered as a most valuable medicine for fits, as well as
fevers.

Charms and incantations appear to be more important than
medicines with the people.

I found that castor oil was appreciated and its action
understood, but it is curious to note that it is supposed to
bo effective by outward application, as well as inward.
Generally speaking, I found that the local knowledge of our
plants was very wide, and it u'ould be difficult to find a plant
of any use that the people could not correctly name.

In some cases where a plant was rare, I found that no name
could be given to it ; as, for instance, I obtained a few examples
of Ceniranthera prommbms, but the people had no acquaintance
with its name whatever. Nor did I find names invented in
order to afford answers to my questions : it was a case of
giving the right answer, or cxpros.sing ignorance,

I might mention incidentally, that though our familiar
Kitul (Caryota urtns) is Avell known, I found the people
equally unacquainted with toddy or jaggery, except as
purchaseaUe commodities, just as much as kerosine oil is.
This ignorance of a sourco of alcohol may have much to do
with the striking absence of crime in the country I refer to,
and I mention it in passing, as worthy of consideration. On
the other hand, 1 would again point out that owing to the
rigidity of ceitain customs there Ls not the same scope for
jealousy over women that plays such an important factor in
crimes of violence in other parts of this Island. Again, it
should not be lost sight of that in the Vedda country small
groups of people congregate round centres where water,
however limited in quantity and impure in quality, is to be
found, and are therefore much more mutually dependent

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

133

than in densely populated areas, whore tho individuality of the
creature is lost in environmental immensity. In the one oa^e ho
and his are known, in the other he and they are but a fraction.

Considerations of space preclude my enlarghag on this
subject, or describing in detail the individual conditions of
the different villages that I explored, but I venture to think
that a careful examination of local factors would throw much
light on the evolution of the race from its early stages of
primitive existence to its present state of partial civilization.

Domestic Animals . — These consist of cattle, buffaloes,
goats, dogs, cats, and fowls.

Black cattle are abundant in all tho inhabited parts of tho
country I explored, and naturally more so where the oppor-
tunities for trade in them exists than in very isolated places .
Milk is nearly always procurable, but I heard of no instance of
children being exclusively reared upon cow milk. Buffaloes
are, where possible, reared for agricultural purposes, and also
for the supply of milk, which is often turned into a form of
junket that is in much demand.

In one village in the Panawa Pattu I found a Tamil man
owning a large herd of buffaloes, and to my surprise I found
that he called them by individual names, the animals respond-
ing to his call.

I was informed that quite a large proportion of the domesti-
cated buffaloes were half-breeds between the wild and tho
tame. This may explain why the Vedda -country animal is
so much larger than the buffalo of, say, the Western Province.

Goats are rare, and only occur where there are Tamil or
Moorish people. I mot with them occasionally, but nowhere
away from the inffuences above mentioned. Pigs, except
wild, I never met with. Dogs are plentiful, and of a much
superior build and type to the village pariah of the civilized
country. This is doubtless due to the care tho real Vedda has
bestowed upon this animal from the earliest time. In point of
size the dogs of tho Vedda country are largo, powerfully built,
and bold. Black and white, or brown and white, are the
usual colours of those animals. Cats are, generally speaking,
scarce, though I remarked at Kumuna that while I only saw
one dog, I found six oats in that little village.

134

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Of fowls, I observed a remarkable diversity of breed. They
may be classed as —

(а) The Hautani type, with the medium length of saddle
and conspicuous erect tail.

(б) The wild type, with long saddle and large drooping tail.

(c) The Cochin-China tj'pe, with feathered tarsi.

■ In the first of these the crow of tho cocks is quite (fistinct,
it being what I call a shrill falsetto. In (6), what I call the
wild typo, the plumage of the males approximates that of our
jungle fowl, both in its beauty of colourhig and in the disposi-
tion of the tail feathers. The hens, too, were more commonly
brown thaii in the Bantam type, where white is tho prevailing
colour of this sex. In (c) the feathered log Ls the outstanding
characteristic. Hero the size of bird is larger than in the
first group, but shorter in the back than in what I call the
wild tjq>e. In no case did I find birds with yellow combs,
though tho early presence of the comb in cock chickens is
particularly noticeable. It would appear, therefore, that tho
domestic fowl has hero developed characteristics that would
imply crossing from three stocks, one of which is analogous to,
if not identical with, the wild bird. On tho other hand, the
unmistakable crow of the wild bird is different from that of
any of the village races.

Of wild animals, tho following is a brief list of observed
mammalia : —

(1) The Gray Wanduroo.—^caxGG in tho Maha VVedirata,
plentiful towards the sea coast in the Panawa Pattu and in
the valley of the Kumbukkan river. Probably this species
was common aU through tho Vedda country, but as its flesh
was eaten it became exterminated, except in uninhabited
places.

(2) The'' Red Monkey or Rilawa (Macacuspilcatus), — Not
common. I found a few in the valley of the Heda-oya and
near Lahugala.

f3) The Loris (Loris gracilis). — Very rare. I did not see a
single example, but I was told by tho people that it was
known near the '' Westminster Abbey ” range of hills, and
again near Monaragala.

ANIMAL and plant LIFE.

135

(4) Leonard (Felis pardus). — Common. I constantly came
upon the tranks of tho leopard in all parts of the Vedda
country, except very far away from water.

(5) Indian Civet (Vivenicula malaccensis). — Occasional.

(6) Mungoose (Herpestes mungo). — Very common, usually
pale coloured.

(7) Jackal (Canis aureus). — Very common all through the
Vedda country, and probably crosses with the domestic dog.
It is commonly believed that the jackal convoys rinderpest,
owing to its devouring cattle that have died of that disease.
1 secured a jackal pup out of a hollow scraped at tho foot
of a Mustard tree {Salvadora 'persica). The little creature at
first showed considerable timidity, but rapidly got over this
shyness. Finding a difficulty in providing it with food I had
it put back at the jdaco where it was captured. It soon ran
off, apparently led by its mother, as I found the spot afterwards
to be completely unoccupied.

(8) Indian Otter (Lutra nair). — I found the marks ot this
animal on the Kumbukkan river, but nowhere else. It is well
known by the name of Diya-baUa, so that I cannot suppose it
is rare.

(9) Bear (Meluminus ursinus). — Common. I found foot-
prints of bear in the driest parts of the country that I explored,
and in places where I could find but few other traces of animals .
The fruits of the Palu {Ilimusops luxayidra) and Wira {Hemi-
cyclia sepiaria) are readily devoured by bears, who in this way
to some extent spread the growth of these plants. I am
informed by the people that direct attacks upon human
beings by boar’s are uncommon, and that when injuries
have occurred the animal has invariably been startled. Thus,
I was told that hollow trees should bo approached with
caution, as a boar roused suddenly from its sleep withui
might with equal likelihood spring upon, as away from, its
disturber.

Near Nahmaluwahela, on a rocky mass, I found a dead
bear. Ho appeared to have fallen from the rock above on to
a ledge below which there was a still larger drop, and being
maimed was unable to got up or down from the spot where I
found the body.

136

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(10) Musk Rat (Crocidura coerulea). — Very uncommon. I
found it at Potuvil only.

(11) Flying Fox (Pteropus medius). — I can only remember
seeing this bat once in the Buttala-Wedirata.

(12) Bats. — I did not shoot any, so am unable to specifically
name those that I saw, which included —

(а) The cave bat ;

(б) The house bat ;

(c) A small brown bat, locally called “ Kiri-wawula a
most active species ; and

{d) A gray bat — probably the Indian Vampire.

The first of these is found in great abundance in caves, but
I did not find them as widely distributed as the last three.

I noticed when lying on my camp bed at night under trees
that the brown bat would hover quite close to my face. I
tried the experiment of lying still with my feet uncovered,
to see if they would attack the exposed limb, but beyond
hovering within a few inches of me they did no harm.

(13) Tht Rock Sqairrd (Sciurus macrurus). — Common, away
from habitations, as it has been shot down for food. On the
Kurabiikkan I found it plentiful, while at Bowela, Danakiri-
gama, and Manawela it is distinctly rare. The black variety is
perhaps a little more rare than the gray.

( 14) Palm Squirrel (Sc . palmarum) . — Not generally common,
and appears to follow^ human distribution. It is more plenti-
ful near Muppane than at Bowela.

(15) A Jungle Squirrel, probably Sc. tristriatus, was seen by
me at the base of the “ Westminster Abbey ” hills. It is readily
distinguishable from the last by being a dark slate-coloured
animal, with bright chestnut stripes. It is usually solitary.

(16) Rats are not very plentiful from my observations,
except at Kumuna.

(17) Bandicoot (Nesocia bandicota). — I repeatedly heard of
this animal as being very destructive to chena crops, but I
did not actually see one. It is said to be eaten as freely as the
mouse deer.

(18) Porcupine (Hystrix leuoura). — -Uncommon. I found
traces of it on the banks of the Kumbukkan river and at

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

137

tSivambala-auduwa, but the people do not speak of it os
common.

(19) Hare (Lepus nigricoUis). — Common.

(20) Elephant (Eliphas maximus). — I came on elephants
frequently, but as regards their abundance or the reverse, it
appears to be a matter of water distribution ; thus, near the
Kumbukkan river, the Heda-oya, and Kurapan-oya qpc would
find abundant traces, or, as I did, the animals themselves. As
soon as the country gets dried up in the south-west monsoon
the distribution ceases to bo general, and the places where
elephants will be found is only within reach of water.
Directly the rains begin and the fresh grass springs up — as it
does do with remarkable rapidity — elephants may be found in
aU parts, so that it might be said that there is a distinct
symptom of migration. I entirely disagree with the opinion,
frequently expressed, that “ elephants are on the increase
on the contrary, I believe the opposite to be the case. The
elephant has to-day a much more restricted area to wander in
than it had a hundred years ago, This area, by the cultural
operations of man, is yearly being shrunk up, while shooting
for “ sport ” and kraaling still further lessen the numbers of
these magnificent animals. The ease with which one can get
an elephant proclaimed a “ rogue ” adds another to the many
causes of its destruction, not to mention the facilities that
have in the last twenty years been offered to certain Chiefs to
have kraals, the few survivors of which do not breed in
captivity. It is only a matter of time for the elephant to be
completely exterminated in Ceylon, unless steps are taken,
with the aid of suitable sanctuaries, in addition to the com-
plete prohibition of kraaling, except at intervals of, say,
twenty years, to prevent this disaster. The actual damage done
by elephants is not to be compared with their value as transport
animals, and nothing can be more deplorable than allowing
such valuable creatures to bo shot in the cause of so-called
“ sport.”

(21) Buffalo (Bos bubalus), — I found these to be generally
distributed in the country I traversed, but not nearly in the
same numbers as I found them in 1906. I found many
skeletons — usually much devoured — of buffaloes, all pointing

138

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to the fact that rinderpest had destroj^ed numbers of these
creatures.- 1 am informed that in the Panawa Pattu alone
that disease killed the wild and tame buffalo alike, and that
thousands died in a few months. I found one herd on the
Kumbukkan in which I counted some thirty individuals, while
in 1906, on the Gajabahu plain, I counted in a single herd
over one hundred.

(22) Samhur (Cervus unicolor). — Moderately common.

(23) Spotted Deer (C. axis). — Common, especially in the
valley of the Kumbukkan river. I repeatedly came on herds
in this river, in one case finding over 200 drinking in the
stream at noon.

(24) Mouse Deer (Tragulus meminna). — Moderately common,
but more so in the south.

(25) Wild Pig (Sus cristatus). — Fairly common, but much
less abundant than in 1906, owing to their having been killed
out by rinderpest,

(26) Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), — I found traces of
this animal occasionally, and by inquiry I heard frequently of
its occurrence. It is, however, not common near the coast.

Of reptiles, the crocodile is plentiful where there is water,
either in tanks, rivers, or backwaters towards the sea, as, for
instance, at Setawe, and all uj) the Kumbukkan river I found
these creatures in abundance.

The Monitor or Talla-goya is fairly plentiful. It is oaton by
both Tamils and the Sinhalese of this locality. I am inclined
to believe that there is a dark and a pale race of this species,
as I remarked that the latter were much more numerous
towards the sea coast, and much lighter coloured than examples
obtained near Muppane.

The Kaharagoya k comparatively rare. I only saw one or
two examples near Muppane. This scarcity I attribute
entirely to the absence of water all the year round.

On the north bank of the Kumbukkan I found a (?) Cerate -
phora in considerable abundance. These animals are pro-
tectively marked, and usually select trees with dark rugged
bark to take up their position upon, their own colouring
assimilating precisely with that of the bark. Under sexual
stimulus in the males the lips become a rich crimson red, with

ANIMAL ANB PLANT LIFE.

139

large rhoraboidal dorsal patches of the same bright colour. On
the stimulus diminishing, these points of colour become a dull
ashen gtay, turning to a pale horny gray with death. The
females have similar markings, only in a very inconspicuous
degree.

I failed to find any examples of this reptile in the north or
west of the country to which this Paper refers.

The so-called Chameleon I found no examples of. I
obtained a green Calotis, and two examples of Gecko, one
about seven inches in length.

Of snakes I only saw three species, viz., the Rat Snake
[Zamenis mucosus), Russell’s Viper {Vipera russelli)^ and the
Green Whip-snake {Dryopkis mycterizans). I specially looked
for Cobras, but without success. Russell’s Viper, on the other
hand, is comparatively common.

As regards the bird distribution, I have thought it desirable
to supply a list* in which I have detailed the distribution, as
it is of interest to note the exact localities for future reference.

Before passing to this fiat I would draw attention to certain
points of special interest that appear to me to bo worthy of
more than a brief catalogue notice.

The curious distribution of one Fan -tailed Flycatcher
{Rhipidura albilrontata) is singular. I found it did not occur
east of Monaragala or north of Kebilitte, though in 1906 I
found it breeding freely at Pottuvil. On my present explora-
tion I observed it at a place called Kobaragoda, south of
Okanda in Panawa Pattu, and from thence still further south
to Kumuna, on the Kumbukkan river. It was not seen north
of Siyambala-anduwa, nor in any part of the country round
the “ Westminster Abbey” hills, thus indicating a piece of
country of limited extent touching the sea south of Okanda
and forming a strip running into Monaragala. From here it
passes to the Lunagalla hills, and thence right up to Bandara-
wela and into Haputalo, whore it may bo found up to 4,000
feet.

I have found it resting at Miriabeddo estate, at about 3,800
feet altitude. Again I have found it in abundance in the

* Appendix C.

9

6(8)15

140

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Wallawe valley below Kaltotta, and from there it spreads into
the Tangalla District, and again at ToUijjawoUa and Henegama
in the Matara District, where the rainfall exceeds 100 inches
per annum. Briefly, therefore, it is to be found both in the
dry and wet zones. It breeds at sea level, and at over 3,500
feet it is common in “ park ” country as well as in “ chena ''
country. I am not acquainted with a more remarkable
distribution — remarkable for its contradictions— of any Ceylon
land bird.

Of the Woodpeckers — Pid — both Chrysocolaptes stricklandi
and Brachyytemus erythronotus — aro common in the Vedda
country, but chiefly in damp forest areas, where owing to the
presence of moisture the trees are large. Away from the
damp forests the little lyivgipicus gmmphthalmus is common
right to the coast at Kummia.

At Galamuna, on the Kumbukkan river, I secured a Brachy-
ptemus that may prove to be a new species. It resembles
erythronotus, except that the inner hind toe is only rudimen-
tary, forming only a minute dactyle projection, terminating in
an apiculate point that serves as a claw. My example — an
adult ? — measured 10| in. in length : wing in., tail SJ in.,
bill (along ridge) IJ in., tarsus 1 in. Unfortunately the skin
of this bird got destroyed, so that I have been unable to
compare it with Museum examples.

I have already hinted that the presence or absence of water
governs the question of human distribution within the area
under consideration, and I venture to think that the same
applies, in some particulars, to the distribution of birds ; thus,
for instance, the common Black Crow [Corvus macrorynchus)
occurs only where there are villages ; nowhere did I find it in
uninhabited forest areas. It was equally common at Kumuna
on the sea coast and at Muppane— far inland— in a hilly
country. The same might, with some curious exceptions,
be said of our Sparrow, that I noticed was common at Pottuvil,
Panawa, and Okanda on the east coast, but was absent at
Kumuna, and equally absent from many of the smaller villages
in the interior of the Vedda country.

The drying up for several months of the year of most of the
streams naturally causes a restricted distribution among the

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

141

Kingfishers, but it is conceivable that this periodical flooding
and drying of these streams initiates a form of migration that
on a more extended scale, brought about by weather fluctua-
tions in geological times, might indicate the impulse of
migration in birds. Thus, reverting to the local migration
incident to the drying up of large waterways, I noticed on the
Kumbukkan river that Akedo ispidu, Ptlargopsis gurial, and
Hakyon smyrnensis were plentiful, while not one of these birds
could be found on the Heda-oya — a river only a few miles to
the north ; the explanation being that the former stream is
perennial, and the latter dry in the south-west monsoon. For
the same reason Ketupa ceyloneyisis occurs at tanks that have
water, and is absent where the opposite is the case*. Ketupa Is,
therefore, to be found along the valley of the Kumbukkan in
both monsoons, but only in the north-east on the Heda-oya.

As the time at my disposal was necessarily very limited I
could do no more than note what was then to be found, so
that a more studied verification of these observations becomes
desirable in order to establish proofs of what might be called a
local migration law. It is, however, rather striking that species
of wide general distribution in the wet zone should show an
erratic distribution in the dry, the key to the explanation
being possibly found in water distribution. In that direction
therefore we may anticipate room for the development of a
definite form of migration, though its range may be com-
paratively limited.

1 observed in the immediate vicinity of the Kumbukkan
river that at night numbers of insects were attracted by a
light, while in the dry country south-east of “ Westminster
Abbey ” there was a comparative scarcity of what I might call
^mp-followers.

At a spot midway between Kebilitte and EUebubbura I
had a unique opportunity of observing the effect of scarcity
of moisture and its influence on insect life. I had seated
myself under a tree for a few minutes, to rest after a hot
march of about 15 miles. The jungle all round me appeared
to be utterly faint with the drought, and I may add that I
felt much the same myself. 1 was in a considerable state of
perspiration, when I noticed a couple of butterflies hovering

142

SPOUA ZEYLANIOA.

quite close to me. Presently one of them lit on my wrist, and
began sipping the moisture as it came from my skin, The
second insect quickly followed exactly the same procedure
on my slowly extending my arm.

At a small puddle, measuring about 2 ft. by 18 in., I found
the whole of the damp ground covered with wasps sipping the
moisture.

Some idea of the dryness of tho locality can be judged from
these instances, and I submit that animal distribution must be
affected thereby.

The distribution of plants, not of direct value to man,
moreover shows certain erratic conditions. The mo.st striking
instance of this is in the distribution of the Dipterocarps. At
Monaragala, and a little to the eastward, our common Hora
[Dipterocarpus zeylaniciis) is jnodorately plentiful. Prom
liyangalla onwards towards the east it is absent, but to the
north-east of Siyambala-anduwa, near the village of Newgalla,
one finds fringes of Vatica obscura on the banks of the dry
streams ; in other words, there is an enormous belt of country
the opposite sides of which have representations of this
important order of trees, with no examples in the intermediate
area.

On the other hand I found no examples of Vatica obscura to
the south of Siyambala-anduwa on any of the streams I crossed .

Of the Dilleniaceae, I found Oillenia indica on tho higher
reaches of the Iloda-oya, and a few individual examples —
probably introduced — towards Waragoda in the north and at
Kumuna in the south-east.

Of the AnonacesB, the usual dry-zone Polyalthias are very
abundant. Both Anamirta paniculata and Tinospora cordi-
folia are abundant representations of the Menispermacese.

In the tanks where there was water, both Nymphsea lotus
and Ndumhium spccioswm are common Lotuses. Both roots
and bulbs of these plants are eaten.

In some of the chenas I found Brassica juncea grown with
the other crops, but I could get no definite explanation why it
was cultivated.

Of the Capparideae, the typical Capparis zeylanica is plentiful -
Its fruits are eaten by the Veddas as well as the Tamils. I

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIPB.

143

found that towards the coast Crataeva ro:j^urghii occurs', but
it is by no means plentiful, as in the Hambantota country.

Of the Bixaceae, I found a few examples of Ct^khspermum
(jossypinm, but clearly these were introductions connected with
Buddhistic places of worship. It may be safely assumed that
where an “ escape ” of this species is found, one may look for
temple ‘‘ remains,” and the same may be said of Ironwood,
Hibiscus ficulneus, or Balsamodendrum caudatum.

Scolopia gsertneri is a wild and plentiful representation of
this order, and abundant round “ Westminster Abbey ” and
Degalhela. Hydnocarpus venenata occurs in abundance by
stream sides, and is probably more plentiful than H.
alpina, which is confined to the dry low-country, notwith-
standing its inappropriate specific name.

Passing over unimportant orders to the Guttiferse the
following claim notice : Garcinia spicata is very common and
widely distributed; Calophyllwm hurmanni is occasional;
C. iomentosum occurs at “ Westminster Abbey ” and near
Degalhela ; (7. ino-phyllum is practically confined to the coast,
though not entirely so, while a further example of this genus
(the identity of which has yet to be determined) I have
referred to already in an earlier Paper, published in the
Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
as being a probable foreigner.

Ironwood — Mesua ferrea — occurs in quite a forest form round
the base of Himitillanegala, where, I suspect, it was introduced.
It occurs at aU the old temples, but is otherwise scarce.

Of the Malvaceae, Sidas and AhxUUms are exceedingly
common. UrcTias, on the other hand, are to be looked for
in damp waste places, where they attain to considerable size.
Thespesia populnea is an introduction, and imt particularly
common. HihisciLs iiliaceus occurs near backwaters, but it is
not generally plentiful. Bomhax malabaricum occurs in the
form of immense individuals, but it is certainly not plentiful ;
while Eriodendron anfractmsum, on the other hand, is a plenti-
fully introduced garden plant.

Among the Sterculias prominence should be given to
S. fedida^ well known to the Tamils as the Katu-teiigai or
forest coconut, 8 . cohrata, and 8 . thumiesii. I obtained a

144

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

few solitary examples of iS. wens, but I feel confident that
this last is an introduction. Pterospermum sfuberifolium — the
Welanga of the Sinhalese— ^is very abundant.

The young straight shoots of this plant supplied the Vedda
arrow, while the wood was employed by them for the
manufacture of “ fire drills.”

The distribution of Helicieres isora is curiously restricted
to what might be turned patches,” the largest of which I
found at Etmole. Heritiera liitoralis — the Chomanturai of the
Tamils — is scarce, but occurs near Panawa and Pottuvil.

Of the Tiliaceae, I noticed that the distribution of Halmilla
[Berrya ammonilla) was not very general, while its abundance
or scarcity appeared to be a matter of its easy access or the
reverse. This is to be expected of so valuable a timber tree.

Vidpani” (Tamil) (Piiyranthe verrucosa), so plentiful in
the Trine omalee District, is comparatively scarce in the Vedda
country. Of the Grewias, G. tilisefolia, G. microcos, and G.
polygama are the commonest, but the first of these is not so
abundant here as in the dry zone of the Ratnapura District.

As representing the Linaciae, Erythroxylon monogynwrn
may be taken as an abundant typical example. It Ls alleged
in the Panawa Pattu that meat hung in the smoke from
burning wood of this plant, if eaten produces a purgative
action.

Both Hipiage madahlota and H.parvifolia of the Malpighiace*
occur in the Vedda country, but in no abundance.

The bright, but pestifOTOus, Tribuluo terrestris, is to be
found near Pottuvil and at Panawa, in places where the soil
is not too dry, but its distribution does not spread far inland.

Of the Geraniace® I found very few examples. Ifi some
slightly moist spots, west of “ Westminster Abbey,” I observed
Biophyium sensitivum, and in some of the tanks I got Hydrocera
tri flora, but in other respects, except the introduced Averrkoa
hilimbi and A. caramhola — common in gardens — this order
is poorly represented. The Rutaceae is not well represented in
ivild species, if we except the well-known Feronia elephantum,
Murraya kmnigii^ and Toddalia aculeata. In the gardens
oranges, lime, and pummalo have been introduced, but with
no marked success either in the matter of quality or quantity

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

145

of fruifc, an insipid fibrous product being the usual type of
Vedda-country orange.

In dry rocky ground Ochna mgktiana is to be found in some
abundance, as exemplifying the small order of the Ochnaceae.

Of the Burseraceae, I have already pointed out that Bahamo-
(kndrum cordaium may be taken as indicating some place of
veneration. I found in many cases where there were ruins,
or abandoned monastic caves, this plant would be sure to occur.
On the summit of “ Westminster Abbey ” it is comparatively
abundant, as also at Nuwaragala — another ancient fort.
Doubtless the fragrant smell of the wood led to its use as an
incense, and, thus, to its cultivation. Canarium zeylanicum
occurs very sparingly west of Bowela, and Filicium decipiens
may be found in the forest valleys, though it does not attain
any striking proportions.

The Maliaceae is very well represented. The Maigosa,
however, as typical of this order, is an introduction, and where
it is found under semi-wild conditions the inference is that that
particular spot was once inhabited. This beautiful tree, how-
ever, is afflicted with a disease that kills back the young twigs,
and I remarked that this sickness is very widespread. Melia
dubia^ often called Wal-kohomba, occurs in the western part
of the Vedda country, but in no great abundance. Wahtura
piscMia and Dysoxylum himciariftrum are both common, while
the famous Satinwood is, of course, very fairly abundant,
except in what might bo called wet forest. The abundance of
Satinwood has, as I have hinted, doubtless from very early
times been influenced by human operations, as the value and
quality of this excellent wood is widely known. That being
so, its spread has been materially governed, with the result
that in a great deal of the country where it once must have
been plentiful there are now only isolated examples.

Mumonia pumih occurs in tolerable abundance round
Bowel a, Waragama, and Danakiria. It is medicinal.

Of Celastracious plants, Elseodendron glaucum is very common
near the coast, and attains a large size. A Kurrimia, probably
a variety of K. zeylanica, is found occasionally in the northern
half of the country I explored, but does not appear to attract
native attention.

146

SPOLU ZEYLANICA.

It is almost superfluous to remark that the Rhamnaoeae are
abundantly represented by various foims of Zizyphiis, both as
an abominable thorny climbing bush, or in the more elegant
Z. jujuba. SciUia Mica is plentiful near damp spots, while
Ventilago maderaspatam is most abundant.

Vitis quadrayignlaris is, perhaps, the most common example
of the Ampilideae, while Lem sarnbuciva is specially noticeable
in the vicinity of large streams.

The Sapindacese afford plentiful examples in Altophylus
cobbe, Sapindus ermrqimtus, or soap-nut, Nephelium hii^ana
(Mora, Sinhalese), Schleichera trijuga (Kon, Sinhalese), and
Gleniea zeytanica, all of which are about equally distributed.

In waste ground the creeping Cardvospermum kalicacahum
is plentiful ; its use as a tonic appears to have been known to
the Veddas.

I also observed Dodonsea viscosa in a few isolated places,
particularly near Wattegama, but to my surprise its use as an
embrocation was apparently unknown.

Of the Anacardiacese, d we except cultivated species, few
occur. The wild mango (Mangifera zeylanica) is to be found
near or in the Heda-oya valley, but not in great profusion.
Odina loordier is to some extent cultivated, as it is frequently
to be found preserved where there are fields. Nothopegia
colehrookiana is setmingly unknown to the people, though I
found it frequently. Spondias mangifera I believe to have
been introduced.

Passing to the Calyciflorse, the small order of Comiarace*
finds as its best representative the widely distributed Connarus
monocarpus, that appears to thrive equally well in the wet
and dry zones. I found it in abundance in some of the driest
situations. It is said to be of use for buffalo ropes.

Of the Leguminosae, space considerations oblige me to make
but the briefest reference to* the better known examples in
a list form ; —

Croialaria retusa. In open waste places.

C. striata. Occasional, in dry fields.

Indigofera paucijiora. In abandoned fields.

I. hirsuta. In waste places and road sides.

jEschyrumene aspera. In damp places or puddles.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

147

Abrus frecatorius. Very common in scrub jungle,

Mucuna (.^) pniriens. Moderately common (in fruit).
Erijthrina indica. In gardens — occasional.

E . ovalifoUa . Near streams and tanks— uncom mon .

Butea frondosa. In the park country near Etmole.

Clitoria Urmiea. Common ; not seen in forest.

EUmingia strobilifera. Near streams and cool spots.
Pterocarpus rmrsupium. In park country — common.
Pongamia glabra. Common near water.

Dalbergia lanceolaria. Moderately common ; of large size.
Derris scandens. 0)mmon all over the country,

Ceesalpinia honduk. Occasional ; possibly introduced.
Cassia fistula. Moderately common.

0, marginata. Common, even clo.se to the sea.

C. auriculata. Commoner near the coast than inland.
Dialium ovoideum. Common on the summit of “ West-
minster Abbey.”

Saraca indica. Occasional in damp forests.

Tamarindus indica. In gardens, abandoned or otherwise.

An introduction.

Bauhinia tormniosa. Plentiful.

Entada scandens. Generally near streams.

Dichrostachys cinerea. Moderately common in bush land.
Mimosa pudica. Occasional.

A.leucophloea. Comparatively rare.

A . eburnea. Common near the coast.

A . csesia. Very common, especially near damp forests ,

A. pemmta. Less common, generally locally plentiful.
Alhizzia odoratissima. Moderately abundant in the west.

A . siipulaia. Occasional .

Pithecolobium geminatum. Locally abundant.

Of the Rosacese, I noticed a Pygeum near Bowela, in a
valley, but procured no examples for identification. On the
banks of the Heda-oya I also secured another, probably an
escape from higher altitudes.

BryophyUum calycinum, as representing the Crassulacese, is
probably an introduction. It infests places where the soil
is not deep, as, for example, near slab rooks, but generally in
these cases near habitations or places once inhabited.

10 6 ( 8)15

148

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Of the Droseraceae, Drosera hurmanni is to be found on
the edges of tanks where the soil is damp, and again I have
found it on thin soil on rocks. This plant appears to be
equally at home at all altitudes in Ceylon, both in the wet as
well as the dry zone. I failed to find it near the sea,, though
it occurs at no groat distance inland.

The Rhizophoracese are well represented by Mangroves
that occur in tidal estuaries. Of these, Rhizophora mucronata
is by far the most common. M. candaria, with its large
leaves, is also often found along with the last, and with
Bniguiera gymnorkka. I also observed a Ceriops, but not in
flower. In a valley south of ‘‘Westminster Abbey I saw
AmsophyUca zcylanica, but this plant appears to belong to a
higher altitude. Carallia integerrima is to be met with in
the Kumbukkan valley.

The Combretacese afford magnificent examples of Kumbuk
{Terminalia glabra), that am to be found on the banks of all
the streams in the Vedda country, The “ Aralii ” {Termi-
nalia chchula) is also common in the “ park country ” near
Etmolo, while its close ally, T. heJerica, is frequently to be
met with right throvigh the Maha Wedirata. Again, in the
‘‘ park country ” Anogeissus latifolia is fairly common.
Combrfiu7n ovnlifolium occurs in rocky places in some abund-
ance. The gaunt Gyrocarpus jacqitini is very common ; it
forms a characteristic tree in this dry locality.

Of the Myrtaceae, I found the most abundant examples in
E'ngenia jamholana, that occur in tank beds, while E. hracteaia
occurs in all the dry forests. By the sides of backwaters,
or where the soil is damp, E. corymbosa forms a common bush.

I noticed a few examples of our common Guava {Psidium
gmjava) in some of the old gardens, but nobody could tell me
how it came to be introduced. Barringtonia acMlangula is
moderately common in and about tanks, where it attains a
considerable size. On the banlcs of the larger streams I
obtained B. racemosa, but it is not plentiful. Care.ya arborea,
how'ever, is moderately common in the northern part of the
country I am treating of.

Of Melastomacious plants, I found very stunted forms of
Osbeckia (?) aspera growing in most impossible places. Near

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFT].

149

Bowela I found, in a damp valley., a /S^o?ien?a. growing in a
rocky crevice. Memecylon umhellatum, M. grande, and M,
capitellatum aro all very common in the forest areas.

Of the Lythxacege, I found Lagerdrmnia flos-regmse not
uncommon on the banks of the larger streams, whore it
frequently occurs as a large tree. Lmcsonia alba is cultivated
at Panawa. In the park country ” I found a few examples
of Woodfordia fioribmida, but this ls far more common near
Passara and Bandarawola.

The poisonous Modecca palrmta is often to be met with,
but is not common. I was surprised to notice that it was little
known to the people. Passiflora foetida, however, appears
to be well known, though its distribution is probably more
restricted. The Papaw has been introduced here, and is to
be found in some of the gardens, but sparingly. ’

Of the Cucurbitacese, I found Trichosanthes integri folia to
be fairly common, its brilliant red billiard-ball-like fruits
being very conspicuous. I suspect that it is eaten by monkeys,
as I frequently found fragments of the fruit. Cephalandra
indica is often to bo soon in dampish forests. In all the
chenas Cucumbers of sorts are grown, and appear to find a
considerable market demand.

Possibly these may have originated in the wcU-knowm
cucumber, but owing to degeneration and environment have
changed their form, for certainly the average shape of Vedda-
country “ Kekiri ” is more round in outline than ovate. The
“ rind” is remarkably bitter to the taste.

Of the Begonias, I found a few examples of what I take to
he B. malabarica not far from the base of Westminster Abbey,
but it may have been an “ escape.”

Our monotypic Tetramdes midiflom occurs but sparingly in
the north of the Maha Wedirata, while the individual trees
are immense.

Of the Caetaceae, Opuntia {?) dille7m is frequently to be
met with, both in a semi -wild state and in hedges. I found it
growing in profusion at Okanda, and all down tho coast where
there were, or had been, gardens. I am unable to say if the
Veddas knew it, though the name Katu-patuk is well known.
1 am inclined to suppose that it was spread by the Tamils.

150

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CoiLsiderations of apace oblige me to avoid more than a
passing reference to the larger Gamepetalous plants, hence
my having unnoticed several of botanical interest, I therefore
select of the Rubiaceae the following : —

Sarcoce/phalus cordatus. Moderately common in beds of
tanks and by river sides.

• Anikocepkalns cadamha. Rather rare, but occurs towards
Muppane.

Adina cordi folia. Locally plentiful.

SUphegyne parvijlora , Rather common, and valued for its
timber.

Wendla^idia notoniana. Occasional, towards the Monaragala
hills.

Musse^ida frondosa. Xot uncommon near streams.

Gardenia htifolia. Plentiful in rocky ground.

Canthium didymum. Common, especially near rooks.

Ixora parvi flora. Common.

Morinda linctoria. Common, especially near the coast,
and often found in gardens.

Webera corymbosa. Exceedingly common.

Of the Compositae : -

Vermmia cinerm. Exceedingly common.

Ekphaniopus scarber. Plentiful in the whole country, but
avoids deep shade.

Ageratum conyzoides. Evorj^where an abundant intioduc-
tion,

Ephseranihus iwUcus. Common in fields.

Bidens ? Not uncommon near abandoned villages, and
occasionally on river banks.

Of the Gordenoviacese, I found Scxvola lohelm common at
Okanda on the sea coast, the only place I have found it in
Ceylon.

Of the Plumbaginacese, our only Plumbago is occasionally
found in most unexpected places, but nowhere in abundance.

Of the Myrsinaceee, I found an Ardisia in many of the forests
near rivers, but I am uncertain of its identity. The leaves
are large and gi’ow in verticils.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

151

Of the Sapotaeese, by far the mogt important is the Palu
[Mimusops hexandra)^ but its distribution is erratic. It is
plentiful between Lahugala and Pottuvil, but the individual
trees are not large. Towards the Heda-oya, and in the arid
country west of Panawa, it also occurs plentifully, but
towards the Kumbukkan valley it again ceases to be abundant.
This erratic distribution in a country that favours the growth
of Palu is probably, as suggested earlier in this Paper, the
outcome of early trade in this valuable timber.

Munamal [Mimusops elengi) occurs very frequently, but
does not become very large. Bassia longifolia I have already
referred to. It is very plentiful up the Kumbukkan river, the
trees there attaining an enormous size ; elsewhere it is
prjictically rare,

Of the Ebenaceae, perhaps the most common is Diospyros
embryopteris, that occurs where there is moisture near at hand.
The Veddas eat its fruit.

/}. ebmum, like “ Palu,” appears to have been largely
exploited, with the result that it is only in remote spots that
it is to be found in any abundance. D. ovalifoUa occasional,
growing in patches.

Both Salvadora persica and Azinia titracantha are abundant,
the former being common near tho coast, but neither in real
forests.

Of tho Apocynacege, the most distressingly common is
undoubtedly Cari6sa sphiarnm, that occurs always where treed
forest has been cleared. Cerhera odolktm is fairly plentiful in
the Panawa Pattu, and is regarded as useful for fencing fields.

Plumeria acuti folia is always associated with temples,
abandoned or otherwise, but I failed to obtain any information
regarding its introduction.

AUionia scholaris is not uncommon, and attains enormous
proportions.

Tabemasmontana dichotoma is also to be found sparingly,
but generally in damp spots.

Of Asclepiads, Hemidesmus indicus is veiy plentiful in
waste land.

Cabtropis gigantea is very abundant, especially near the

152

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sarcostemma hrunonianum occurs frequently, especially in
the bush country.

Dregea voluhilis is also fairly abundant near to LiyangoUa
and Muppane.

Of the Logauiaceae, the well knowui Strychnos nuz -vomica
is most abundant. It is remarkable, in view of its being so
common, that cases of children poisoning themselves by
eating the seed are rarely hoard of.

S. potatorum occurs, but is not abundant. I looked out for
cases where the seeds were used for precipitating muddy
water, but failed to find an instance of its use in this direction.

Of the Gentian aceae, Ezacum zeylanicMm occurs in fields,
but the flowers are much paler than in wet-country examples.

Of the Boraginese, Cordia myxa is fairly common. Tourne-
fortia argentea occurs on the seashore, but is not plentiful.
Helioiropium indicum is very common in waste ground.

Of the Solanacose, mention need only bo made of Datura
fastuosa, which appears in nearly all the more establisliod
gardens. The various “ Battus ” I can pass over, as being
common all over the Ceylon low -country, and as probably
introduced.

Of the Scrophulariacose I desire to draw attention to only
one, Ceniranthera procumbens, owing to its presence in a dry
country being remarkable. I found it on two occasions only,
first between Nangalla and Danakiriya, and the second time
about five miles south of LiyangoUa. On both these occasions
I asked the viUagers if they could name it, but without success.
Its presence is singular, as it is generally to bo found only iii
the wet zone, or in a country where extremes of drought are
not experienced.

Of the Bignoniaceae, Oroxylum indicum is moderately
common, but I think there is little doubt that it was introduced
for the sake of its medicinal value. Dolichandrone rheedii
occurs near the coast, near standing water. Sterenspermum
chelonioides is fairly common. Its wood was used by the
Veddaa for bows.

Of the Pedaliaceae, Pedalum murex is common near the
coast, and is used by both the Sinhalese and Tamils for fi-
demulcent.- Marlynia diandra occurs on the fringes of villages

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

153

in waste ground, as if introduced.. Sesamum indicum is
sparingly cultivated.

The Verbonacesc afford, among many others, the valuable
Milla {Vitex altissima), which is generally plentiful. I am
inclined to doubt if var. alata can be sustained, as I repeatedly
obtained examples of broadly-winged ” petiolated leaves on
the same tree that bore normally petiolated leaves. This
“winging ” of the leaf stalk appears to be a matter of maturity,
as in very young shoots the “wings ” are often markedly
pronounced. F. leucoxyhn is common about tanks. Gmelina
asiatica is moderately common in wiiste ground near habita-
tions. Premnu iomeniosa and P. sermtifolia are both
abundant, the leaves of the latter being eaten. Avicennia
officinalis is common in Avot ground near the coast.

Passing to the Lauraceae, the most useful is the Avell known
“ Ranai ” (Persea semecarpifolia), fairly common in the forest
areas, especially south of Kallu Obba and below Degalhela.

Of the Thymelaeaceie, I repeatedly obtained Gyrinops walla,
its value as a cordage being known to the Sinhalese Veddas.

With a rapid glance at the Euphorbiaceae and the Urticaceae
I must conclude my notes on the plants of the Vedda
country : —

Euphorbia antiquorum is frequently to be met with, but it
does not attain the proportions so marked in the Hamhantota
District.

E. tortilis, if I may accept a Pivhiged branch as indicating
this species, I observed near Buddaraa.

E . iirucalli is common as a hedge plant, especially near the
coast.

Bridelia retusa. Rathor common.

Phyllanthus emblica. Occasional, more common toAvards
Monaragala.

Eluggea leucopyrus. Very common in land that has been
cleared.

Hmicyclia sepiaria. Exceedingly abundant. Its fruits
s-fe much relished by the Veddas, and, I might also add, by
tears and monkeys.

Mischodon zeylanicus occurs sparingly by the riA’'ers, but is
not generally distributed.

154

SPOLIA ZEYLAXICA.

Aleurites triloha is to be found in a few village gardens
towards the west, but is nowhere cultivated in much quantity.
It is an introduction.

DimorpJiocalyx gktbell'iis. Exceedingly common, except
near the sea shore.

Mallotus aU)us. Tolerably plentiful, especially in the west.

MacaraTiga tomeniosa. Occasional . There is reason to
suppose this has been to some extent introduced merely for
the sake of the large peltate leaves, that afford a useful
substitute for plates. By tracing a group of the.se trees I was
able to find one of the most important of the caves on the oast
flank of “ Westminster Abbey.”

Chaetocarpus casfanoaxrpus. Occasional.

Sapium imigne . Co m m o n , espec ially nc a r ro cks .

Holopielea integrifoUa, representing the Urticacese, is vary
common up to within a short distance of the coast. It occurs
right up the Kumbiikkan valley to the foot of the II v a hills,
after which it becomes scarce.

Trema orienialis I found to bo locally plentiful, but more so
towards the hills.

SireUiis asper. Very common, and with much variation in
the size of the leaf.

Ficus benghalensis (the Banyan of Europeans) is very
abundant right down to the coast. It appears in all the old
established villages, which loads one to the idea that it was
introduced. I have, however, found it in localities where it
may have been introduced by birds transporting the seed from
the (?) cultivated trees, as the fruits are readily devoured bv
Barbets and Pigeons.

F. retusa. Very common.

F. amottiana. Occasional, especially in rocky places.

F. tsjakela. Occasional,- and appears to be singularly
partial to old ruins.

F. hispidu. Not uncommon near rivers and in damp forests.

F. religiosa. Common near any temple. At Kumuna 1
found some enormous examples, as also at Wattegama.

Aniiaris ioxicaria. Rare. I am informed, as stated early
in this Paper, that the Veddas use it for making “ loin cloths
to be worn on ceremonial occasions.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

155

Artocarpis nohilis. Quite rare, and only seen up the Heda-
oya valley.

A. inte^ri folia. Oultivatod, but not usually attaining any
very large size^ unless water is within reach.

^4. incisa. At Buddama I was shown a solitary example
of our well known Breadfruit tree, and I was informed that it
was the only ono of its kind to be found in the Vedda country.
While this may not be strictly correct, I may mention that
I found Breadfruit trees became exceedingly rare east of
Monaragala.

11

C(8)15

158

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

APPENDIX 13.

January

Moaaragala

Hospit^,

700 ft. altitude.
Inches.

3-13

Mean for
16 Years.

Inches.

7-51

February . .

'26

3-51

March

3'20

3-78

April

.. 15-07

7-02

May

7-64

8-48

June

1'23

1-72

July

•70

3-09

-August

3-33

3-72

September . .

2-47

4'41

October

4-88

12-72

November . .

8 ‘ 74

9-80

December . .

.. 10-33

10-15

Total . .

60-90*

70'91t

* 110 days for 1912. t 101 days.

APPEXDIX C.

List of Birds observed in the Vedda Country during July, 1914,
giving Local Distribution.

1. Astur hadiun, Ojie snen at Guruliela. *

2. Accipiter sp. {?). The Museum Collector obtained a $
Accipiter, which 1 am inclined to tliink is a new species to Ceylon.
It was one of a pair that were engaged in building at the time
it was shot- It possesses the characteristic long central toe. but
in size it is much smaller than A. nisus or A. virgaius, with the
breast boldly marked with dark smoke-brown streaks and blotches,
and not barred. The second and third primaries also differ from
the last mentioned, while the tarsus is also markedly stouter. My
example was obtained at Newgala.

J). Pernis cristatus. Observed at Panawa and Bargura

4. Spilornis cheela. Observed at the base of the Monaragola
hills, at Guruhela, Etmolo, Panawa, and near Kobilitte,

5. Halisetus lewogaster. Observed at Panawa, Okanda.
Lahugala, and Kuinuna.

6. Haliastur indiis. Common at Panawa and at Bargura.

7. Falco perigrinus. Nesting in the eastern cliff of “ West-
minster Abbey.”

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE,

159

8. Ketupa ze^ylonensis. Heard at Muppane, Liyangoila, but
only near places where there was water.

9. Huhuct mpalensis. At Panawa I heard the cry of what 1
believe to be this, but 1 include it doubtfully.

10. Scops giu. Heard at Siyambala-andiiwa.

11. S. haJekamuna. Heard at Danakirigaila, Kllebubbura,
Muduwa, and Kumuna. I think there is no doubt about this
l)eing bakka7num, though I did not actually obtain one.

12. Gktucidium. I heard these owls repeatedly at Panawa,
Bargura, Danakirigalla, Ellebubbura, Muduwa, and Moramal-
pokunna, but unfortunately obtained none so as to determine the
species, but judging by the note I believe the bird.s I heard were

Castanonotum.

13. Palscornis eupatria. Distinctly scarce. Occur in the
valley of the Kumbukkan.

14. P. torqmtus. Kumbukkan valley, Uva boimdary,
JSiyambala-anduwa, Manawela, Ellebubbura, and LiyangoUa.

16, P. caUhropce. Common at Danakirigalla. some at Liyan-
golla, Muduwa, and Panawa.

16. Loriculm hyiicus. Seen at the Uva boundary near
Siyambala-anduwa, and heard in the Kumbukkan valley.

17. lyngipicus gymnoplithdmus, I obtained two at Siyam-
bala-anduwa. Common at EUebubbura, Ampitiya, Kitulana,
Kumuna, and cast of Panawa. My examples are both ?, and
measure : —

(o) Length 4 ’76 in., tail 1-60 in., wing 3 in., bill -04 in,
tarsus • 50 in.

{h) Length 5‘00 in,, tail r50 in., wing 3 in., bill ‘50 in.,
tarsus * 50 in.

18. Chrymcolaptes .stricklandi. Plentiful at La hn gala. Occurs
at Kurapan-oya, in Kumbukkan valley, Hejla-oya valley, Dana-
kirigalla, EUebubbura , Ampitiya, and Etiuolo.

19. « Bt'OchypterniLs. I obtained, while going up the valley of
the Kumbukkan river, w^hat I have referred to in the text as
pos.sibly a new species belonging to this genus. The short, or I
should say rndunentary. inner hind toe is particularly striking.

20. B. erythronotus. Valley of the Kumbukkan, Panawa,
and Bargura.

21. Thereicef'yx zeylonkus. Occurs at Lahugala, Panawa,
Kurapan-oya, Okanda, Jvumima, valley of the Kumbukkan.
Bowcla, and round “ Westminster Abbey.'*

22. Cyano'ps fiamfrons. Not particularly common. Pound
near Degalhela, Ellebubbura, Lahugala, Panawa, Okanda,
Kumuna. Plentiful near Monaragala.

23. Xantholserm rvbncapiUa. Conomon all over the Vedda
country.

24. Cucvlus sonnerati. Observed in the valley of the Kum-
bukkan river.

25. Coccystes iacobinus. Not aeon east of Muppane, w'hero it
plentiful.

160

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

26. Without having actually seen the bird, T venture to include
a Cuckoo that may be identified by its monotonous and melancholy
note, that represents the words “ Captain Philpotts.’ ' It is common
in the dry forests and plentiful near Maha*oya. I have spent
considerable time and trouble in trying to obtain it, and while
getting to within a few yards of the creature, I have always failed.

I found it to ocCLu? at Etmole and the dry country towards
Chimney Hill. Its exact identity is unknown to me.

27. Eudynamis honomta. Heard at Panawa.

28. PJuemcophfes pyrrhocephahis. Seen at the Uva- Eastern
Province boimdary, Knmbukkan valley, Siyambala-anduwa,
but not near the sea.

29. Bhopodytes viridivostrw. Scarce ; only near Monaragala,

30. Cerdropius sinensis. Abundant right down to the coast.

31. Harpactes Jasciatus. Common at Siyambala-anduwa;
•seen in the vaUcys of the Kuimi>an‘Oya and Kumbukkan river;
not elsewhere.

32. Anthracoeeros coroneiius. Common in the valley of the
Kumbukkan. Seen at Panawa and Bargura, at which last place
I obtained two measuring; —

Length 35’ 50 in., wing 12*85 iu.. tail 14 in , bill 7 in.,
tarsus 2* 25 in.

$ Length 33*50 in., wing 12*25 in., tail 12*25 in , bill 6 in.,
tarsus 2*30 in.

33. Tockus singalemis. At Labugala, Kurupan-oya, Kum-
bukkan river. Comparatively a scarce bird.

34. Ceryle varia. Occurs at Panawa and the lower reaches of
the Kumbukkan river.

35. Alcedo ispida. Common at Labugala, Panawa, Kum-
bukkan river, Kurapan-oya, and near all the w'et paddy fields
round Monaragala,.

36. Pelargopsis gurial. Common on the Kumbukkan river,

at Labugala, Panawa, Okanda, Kurauna, and lower reaches of
Heda-oya, *

37. Halcyon smyrneiisis. Common at Pottuvil and down the
coast to Kumuna, and in all places whore flowing water is present.

38. Mcrops philippmiis. These migrants had already arrived,
and wore plentiful at Lahiigala, Kurauna, and at Muduwa. In
the early x^f^rt of August they had reached Muiopane.

39. M. viridis. Occurs at Ullapola, Bargura, Labugala,
Panawa, Okanda, but i.s .scarce towards the centre of the area
involved.

40. Taehornia batassiensis. At Pottuvil, Okanda, and Kumuna.

41. Coliocalia fuciphaga. Abundant, and nesting at Monara*

gala-

42. Macropteryx coronata. Common at Panawa and all
down the coast to the Kumbukkan. I also found it sparingly at
Siyambala-anduwa.

43. Caprimulyua kdmrii. Heard in the Kumbukkan valley-
' 44, C. asiaticus. Common down the coa.yt from Pottuvil to
Kuraumi.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

161

45. C. indicus. Common down the coast from Pottuvil to
Knmuna.

46. Corvus macrorkynchus. Common where there are in-
habited villages only.

47. Ofiolus melanocephxilus. Common right to the coast,

48. Graucalus macii. Found at Ampitiya,

49. Pericrocotus fiammeus. Common in the Heda-oya valley.

50. Lalxige sylcesi. Found at Muduwa, Kiiranna, and plentiful
up the Kumbukkan valley.

51. Tephrodornis pondicerianus. Heard at Pottuvil and at
Lahugala.

52. Dissemurus lophorhynm. I suspect that this bird occurs,
but not having actually shot one I include it doubtfully from
Kumbukkan valley.

53. D. paradisetis (locally called Kudamahawaraliya) is very
plentiful all through the Vedda country forest area. Unlike its
relations in the Sabaragamuwa Province it does not associate with
numbers of the Malacocerci. The following measurements of
example.s were obtained : —

Length 17 in., tail 12 in., wing 5’87 in,, bill 1‘37 in,, tarsus
1 in.

$ Length 13i in., tail 8 in., wing 5 "25 in., bill 1 in., tarsus
1 in.

54. JJucanga Inicopygialis. Plentiful west of Siyambala-
auduwa.

55. Terpsiphone paradisi. Seen at Pottuvil, Panawa, Okanda,
and in Kumbukkan valley.

56. Hypoihymis azurm. Common. 1 found a nest of this
species on the summit of “ Westminster Abbey. " It occurs com-
paratively sparingly in the Fast or n Province.

57. Phipidura alhifrontaUi. See text.

58. Cyornis tickelli. Common at a place south-east of
Kotiyagoda, and at Ellebubbura, Liyangolla, Ftmole, and the
bastfof “Westminster Abbey."

59. Copsychus saulari^. Common up to the Heda-oya, but
not seen oast of “ W estminster Abbey. ’ ‘ Few at Lahugala, j^lentif ul
south of Pottuvil.

60. Cittocincla jmcrum. .Abujidant right to the coast. The
local name is fSudu-wai’aliya.

61. Thamnobia fulicata. Comparatively scarce. Tbund

breeding at Lahugala ; occurs down the coast to Kiimuna.

62. Turdus spiloptera. Heard in tlie high forest soutli of
DegalheJa, but nowhere else,

63. Hypsipptes ganepsa. Plentiful at Kotiyagoda, Heda-oya
valley, Bowela, Etmole, and towards Monaragala.

64. dole icterica. Common in the Heda-oj^a and Kurapaii-oya
valleys, but scarce north and east of Degalhela. Not seen west
of Kodiyana.

65. Pycnonotus lutcolua. Common right to coast.

66. P. 7n€lanicterm. Common in the river valleys, especially
near Kumuna westwards.

162

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

67. P. hxmorrhus. Common right to tho sea.

68. Chlorops-is jer^oni. Very scarce ; only near Monaragald
hills and at rottuvil,

69. Mgithina tiphia. i^ot very common. Seen near coast
line.

70. Crakwpus. Common down the coast, but comparatively
rare towards Siyambala-anduwa. I found a few at Bowola and
towards Buddama.

71. Pomatorhinus mvlanurus. Heard at Fanawa, Himitillanp-
■galla, round “ Westminster Abbey ’ and Muduwa, but not in th(!
Kumbukkan valley.

72. Alclppe nigrifron^. Common at Lahugala, Kuinuna
Breeding near Panawa and on summit of “Westminster .Abbey,'
extending south to the Kumbukkan valley.

73. PeUorncum fusdcapillum. Common, but the bird.s from
the region under consideration arc distinctly paler than those
from the wet districts.

74. OHhoiomus sutorius. Common e\'erywliere right down
to the sea-side,

75. Prinia valida. Seen at Bowela, and in a piece of gra.ss
land at Karane. Heard at Lahugala and Okanda.

76. Drymcem in.9ukiris\ (I am retaining Legge's species and
name.) Seen only in the park lands soutli of Etinole.

77. Cisticola cursitans. Only seen at Newgalla in an aban-
doned field and at Panawa,

78. Citta frontalis. Heard at Siyambala-anduwa.

79. Cinnyris lotenius. Seen at Wattegaina, Siyambala-
anduwa, Pottiivil, down tlie coast to the Kumbukkan.

80. C. zeylonicus. Seen all down the coast from Panawa.
but few only observed near “Westminster Abbey. '

81. Dictum erythrorhynchum. Seen at Lahugala, Ketulana,
Pottiivil to Kiimima, but becoming distinctly .scarce between the
Kumbukkan valley and Monaragala.

82. Zoskrops palpabrosa. Heard at Siyambala-anduwa.

83. Hirundo hyperythru. Common. I found its nest at
Kebilitte. It is quite plentiful at Okanda,

84. Passpr dom.r.sticns. Not generally common. I found it
at Pottuvil, Panawa, Okanda, but not at Kuinuna, on tlie coast ;
again at Bowela and Nambanna (few ), wliile it is plentiful at
Etmole and Mupjiano.

85. AUiuda gulgula. Common.

86. Ploceus baya. Near Okanda I found .several trees in
which tho familiar pendulous nests were in abundance, but in all
cases these were last year's work. I looked in vain for this bird
in the northern part of tljie Wedirata, where I suspect it occurs
when tho rice fields are in cultivation, but as that is not of regular
occurrence, I assume that a local migration takes pkee,

87. P. manyar. I found tliis species at Lahugala, where, the
tank being full all the year round, both rushes and sedges ar('
available for nesting in.

88. Uroloncha kelmrti. Occurs near Monaragala, but I have
no notes of it eastward of that place.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

ir>3

89. U. rmlabarica. Seen at Kumvtna.

90. 37.* striata. Common. Plentiful in the Panawa rice fields,
Kumbukkan valley, Wattegama, and Muppane.

91. Artarrms fusc'its. Common at Barawaya, Ellebubbura,
abundant at Pottuvil,

92. Acridotheres melanosternus. At Panawa and near coast,
and plentiful at Monaragala. Wattegama ; not generally common.

93. Eulabes religiosa. Common up the Heda-oya valley.
Plentiful at Ellebubbura, Liyangolla, and the Kumbukkan valley,
down to the coast.

94. Colurrd)a interimdia. From a description given to me
I think this bird occurs at Okanda, but personally I did not
observe it.

95. Turtuf suratmsis. Common throughout tiie whole of the
Vedda country where there is any open land ; especially common
in fields.

96. Chalcopkaps indica. Common, The variability of the
bearing of the tail feathers is striking.

97. Carpophaga senea, locally called Godabowa, is fairly
common, especially in tlie valleys of the larger streams, such as
the Heda-oya, the Kurapan-oya, and the Kumbukkan river.

The following measurements I took from examples shot at
Xewgala and the Kurapan-oya, respectively : —

Length 15 in., tail 5'75 in., wing 8‘25 in., bill 1’25 in.,
tarsus 1 ‘ 12 in.

Length 15'25 in., tail 6'00 in., wdngS'OO in., bill 1‘25 in.,
tarsus 0 ’ 87 in.

98. Osmoireron bicincia. Common right down to the coast
line, especially w'here ripe Banyan fruit is plentiful.

99. 0. pompadora. Common like the last, but, perhaps, more
abundant.

100. Pavo cristtttus, I did not see a single trace of Peafowl
in Uva. All down the coast from Pottuvil to the Kumbukkan it
is common over a belt of country varying from 6 to 15 miles in
width, but these birds appear to exclude themselves from high
forests.

Near Lahugala I found cock birds more plentiful than hens,
and at Bargura I saw a procession of eleven cock birds walking
in single file down to a pool. Hens appear to be either solitary
or more shy than the males, hence their seeming rarity.

101. Qallus lafayetii. Exceedingly common, and. like the last,
the males are seemingly more common than the females.

There is much reason to believe tliat this species crosses with
the village fowl, but evidence as to further intercrossing is obscure,
as no definite examples of connected history can be obtained
from a people to whom such a subject is of no interest. In the
text reference has been made to distinct strains of domestic
fowls that, it may be assumed, have developed without any
definite human intervention, and it is beyond demonstration to
show how these strains came to be established ; but whether the
variation arose from the cross-breeding of domestic birds witli

12 6(8)16

164

SPOLIA ZEYI-ANICA.

others of their own species, or by crossing an inbred stock witli
the wild bird, is equally open to question.

I am inclined to believe that the inbreeding' of the domestic
bird has been an important factor in the forming of specific
strains, and these have a^ain been varied by the crossing with
the wild bird ; hence in one strain we find a distinct difference in
the }iote, while in another we find a close identity of general
“ build.”

102. Galloperdix bicalcarata, I was able to make careful
notes of the distribution of our Spur-fowl. I found it to occur
at the foot of some low hills west of Siyambala-anduwa ; again
at the foot of Digalhella, at Danakirigalla, at the base of
Westminster Abbey, near Ullapola, Nambana, Monaragala hills,
Ampitiya ; plentiful at Lahugala and at Kumuna. This last
named place is the nearest point to the sea that I have traced this
species. It is remarkable that in the plains the Spur-fowl docs
not appear to occur unless at the base of small hills ; thus, while
it is common at the foot of the Lahugala hills, it appears to be
absent between that point and Siyambala-anduwa, where the
country is flat.

103. Turnix taigoor. At Kumuna and in park lands near
Etmole.

104. Erythra pfuxnicura. Comnaon where there is water.
I found it at Newgalla and Wattegama, confining its movements
to small tanks in each instance. Plentiful at Monaragala.

105. Porphyria polioceplvjdus. At Lahugala tank,

106. Totanus stagnatilis. Common in small numbers near
backwaters and pools right through the country I explored.

107. Numenius arqu ita. I found it in the neighbourhood of
the sand dunes near Panawa, wdiero it might be considered
plentiful.

108. Uydrophasiunus chirurgus. On the tank at Lahugala.

109. Himantopn^s candiduy. Very numerous round shallow-
lagoons at Okanda and near Panawa.

110. Lohivancllus indicus. Common, especially in flat dam])
ground.

111. Glareola lactea. I only once met with it at Panawa.
where it appeared to be very plentiful.

112. A Tom, which I take to bo Sterna medio ^ is common along
the coast. I found it frequenting both Arugam and Okanda
bays.

113. A smaller species than the last, that I presume to be
S. sinensis f I saw at Panawa only.

1 li. Ncitapus coromandelianus. Abundant at Lahugala only.

11,". Dendrocygna javanica. Plentiful at Lahugala and
Panawa tanks. Breeding near Kumuna.

116. Phoenicopterus roseus. When I was surveying near the
coast south of Panawa in March of 1907 I found a large flock of
these Flamingos at one of the shallow lagoons, but on the occasion
•of my present visit in July I did not see a single example.

117. Platalea leticorodia. Seen at Okanda.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE.

165

118. Tantxilus Uucoc&phalus. Seen at Kumuna.

119. Arhostomus osdtam. Along the coast south of Pottuvil.
J.ocal name Gonbeli-kokka.

120. Dissura episcopuH. Seen in numbers at Bargura.

121. A bird locally called '' Mdno-kokka"' was seen by me at
Lahugala, but I am uncertain if it is identical with Leplopilus
javaMC^^-

122. Xenorhynch/us asiaiicus. T watched a pair at the nioiith
of the Kumbukkan river, seemingly feeding on fish, but I was
unable to procure an example for more close identification.

123. Ardea cinerea. Near Panawa and at Bargura.

124. HeTodicts alba. Seen at Panawa and at Okanda, but
doubtfully included here.

125. Ardeola grayi. Plentiful at Ncwgalla, Wattegama, and
in wet fields round Moiiaragala.

12(1. Ardeiralla cinnamomea. Only seen near wet fields near
Monaragala and the margin of the tank at Wattegama.

127. rhalacrocorax carbo. Plentiful in Panawa and Lahugala
tanks.

128. Floius mdanoga^ter. Common ; often found in stagnant
river pools right in the heart of the forest.

129. Pelecamis philippiTiensis. Only seen in the large “ villu ’
at Kumuna, where it is very abundant, and breeds there.

166

SPOLU ZEYLAUICA.

NOTES CONCERNING THE OCCURRENCE OF SMALL
DESERT TRACTS IN THE NORTH-WEST
OF CEYLON.

By E. J. Wayland.

{With five 'plate.s and a mip.)

"DBOBABLY no road in Ceylon is so little known as that
which runs from Puttalain to Mannar. It can hardly
be traversed without considerable difficulty, for in point of
fact it is not a road but a track . Not always easy to determine,
and varying considerably from point to point, it affords the
traveller an interesting, if somewhat tiresome, journey. It
passes through dense forest, thorny sc mb, and park lands ;
over miles of parched red earth and sun-baked plains, over the
dry beds of rivei’s and under the cool surface of lakes and
permanent water-courses ; through the mire and slush of reed-
choked swamp, and in one place, at least, across a desert.
This remarkable and iin looked for desert tract lies about half
a mile to the south of the Moderagam-aar (the river which
forms the northern boundary of the North-Western Province).
There are, to my knowledge, two other desort-liko areas within
easy reach of Marichchukkaddi ; the one which I propose to call
(h) (reserving (a) for the first mentioned) is some four or five
miles to the east of the village, and the other (c) immediately
south of the Kall-aar (Northern Province). Some indications
of a fourth are to be found about a quarter of a mile to
the north of the same river. They share the peculiarity of
being surrounded by jungle, which ends sharply at their
edges ; much as the up-country for^ts abut against the
patnas. Not one of them is far from a water-course, but they
are not in themselves stream beds. They are totally unlike
the broad sandy channels of the rivers which dry up completely

OCCimRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS.

167

for several months of the year.* During the rains the desert
tracts drain off rapidly to the rivers, as indicated by the
narrow effluent ravines choked with sand (plate I., hg. 2).

The deserts tend to assume the form of more or less ellip-
fical depressions bounded by scarped faces, which are most
conspicuous along the borders furthest from the main drainage
line of the district.

Approaching the largest and most typical desert tract (a)
from the south one passes through dense forest of the dry -zone
flora springing from a brick -red soil, which evidently makes a
very fertile ground. The forest ends abruptly on the edge of
an escarpment, the upper fifteen feet or so of which is a red
loamy deposit, w'hile the lo>ver half is composed of sedimentary
deposits (plate II., fig. 1). The barren tract is scarcely
more than a quarter of a mile wide, but extends laterally for a
mile or so . On the northern side of the desert the jungle starts
again, and nearly half a mile beyond this point lies the Modera-
gam-aar (Uppu-aar).

The sedimentary rocks which form the floor of the desert
tract reach down to the coast and extend seme miles mland.
They vary in composition from compact limestone to arena-
ceous and calcareous beds, in which limonite concretions are
common. The compact limestone does not occur, except as
pebbles and isolated fragments, in any of the barren tracts.

During the early part of the monsoons strong winds blow
across the country, catching up sand denuded from the rocks
of the desert floor and carrying it along in scurries and whirl-
pools. These effect much wear and tear of softer parts of
exposed rocks, so that the harder bands and concretions come,
in time, to stand out in bold relief. As may well be imagined,
the resulting surface is rough in the extreme and very tiresome
to walk over. It recalls in some measure the less sandy parts
of the great African deserts, which are locally such “ bad

^ At the time of my yisit™Fcbruftry and March — the Poinparippn
river was chest deep at the ford, while the Moderagani-aar was rapidly
drying up. The Kall-aar was completely dry to its mouth. The
country is ahnoat uninhabited, and information concerning it is difficult
to obtain, but I gathered from some fishermen at the coast that the
hall-aar never contains much water now-a-days.

168

SPOLIA ZEYLAKICA.

going ” that the Arabs are obliged to fit leather shoes to
their camels in order to traverse this unhospitable ground
(plate 11., fig. 2, and plate III.). Mushroom -shaped rocks,
which are common features of some arid regions, are hardly
represented in this country ; but hard stones polished by the
attrition of the blowing sands are by no means rare (plate
iV., figs. 2 and 3). Speaking of deserts in general Prof. JamcvS
(leikie says : —

So effective is the action of the sun and wind that the whole
surface of a rainless region is gradually denuded and lowered, the
loose materials continually travelling onwards to the borders of
the desert. The sands of continental dune-lands, therefore, have
no necessary connection wfith abandoned sea floors. It is true
that within certain desert areas there exist lakes and inland seas
that are gradually drying up. In the great desert of Gobi, for
example, lakes occur which have obviously at one time been
considerably more extensive. So again in the Aralo -Caspian
depression, abundant sand hills are scattered over wide areas,
which were certainly under water at quite a recent geological
date. Within such tracts, therefore, after the water had dis-
appeared, much loose sand w^as doubtless already prepared for
the direct action of the wind. Put in the case of extensivi*
deserts, such os those of North Africa, Central Arabia, &c., the
sand has betm derived almost wholly from the suh-disiiitegratioii
of rock.*

During the long dry season the heat is intense, and not a few
stones which have offered a resistant face to the ravages of
time have been burnt brown or black by continued exposure
to the sun (plate IV., fig. 2). But sun-baked stones art'
much more common in or near the river beds than on this
practically waterless tract. Though heat is certainly one
factor in the process of tanning, moisture is undoubtedly
another, and the present writer remembers his astonishment
at seeing certain rocks near the Nile, on the Sudan border
land, which w’ere markedly more .sun burnt on the sides
which obtained most shade than on those which were subjected
to the glare of the sun all day.

Disintegration through the action of solar heat is the most
potent form of weathering in the desert tracts (a), (6), and (r.)
with which we are dealing ; wind erosion has accomplished
comparatively little. Its effects are, however, to be seen, and

“ Mountains : their Origin, Growth, and Decay,” 101.3.

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS.

169

probably better in trtiot (c) than in either of the other two.
Faceted stones occasionally occur, and these are of interest in
the present connection.

In most deserts, and especially in those whereon the wind-
direction is constant for months together, the bigger stones
and pebbles, which successfully resist the pushing power of the
air current, become faceted hy reason of the sand blast action
of the grit “laden wind. It not uncommonly happens that
these stones possess three faces separated by three sharp
edges, for which reason they have been called “ Dreikante.’’
The exact mode of formation of Dreikante was an open
question till five years ago, when Mr. Arthur Wade settled the
matter in a short Paper to the Geological Magazine. Some
were of opinion that the keels, or edges, were to be explained
by the dividing effect which a stone might bo supposed to
have upon the incident bluxst, thus causing the simultaneous
production of two facets, which, in time, wunld meet along
an edge in the plane of the wind ; but Wade’s observations,
made on the seaboard of the Egyptian desert, showed that
the broad face of Dreikante are opposed to the wind and not
parallel to its direction, as the above-mentioned theory would
require. It is not proposed to go deeply into the theory of
faceted stones in this short Paper, but briefly it may l>e stated
thus : The natural sand-blast gradually wears away the stone
u]X)n which it impinges, producing, in time, a more or less
smooth face, which exhibits, in profile, a very characteristic
curve, convex below and concave above (plate V., fig. 1). The
edge between the facet and the base is also a curve, as sho^vn
in plate V., fig. 3. A stone loses weight, of course, during the
process of faceting, and the time conies when the wind is
able to move it — or perhaps it is moved by some accidental
circumstance. Sooner or later it takes up a stable position
with another part of it exposed to the blast, so another face is
formed, and, in time, they meet each other along a sharp edge.
In the course of its sulisequent mov'ements the stone is almost
sure to come to rest on one or other of these faces, and then
maintain itself in stable equilibrium for a long period, wherein,
mdess one face chances to bo again opposed to the Mund,
another face is formed. Not aU wind-cut stones show three

170

SPOLIA KEYLANICA,

facets ; some have more, many have less. The example
figured in plate V. has one wind-out face — the curved face ; the
plain surfaces are the result of jointing in the original rock.

A peculiarity about faceted stones is that while they are
characteristically desert products, they are often thinly
distributed and are only locally abundant. In (a) desert
faceted stones are scarce, but polished pebbles are not un-
common, while a fair proportion of stone age artifacts, in
which the tract is peculiarly rich, bear a high lustre.

Besides these wind-out and wiiid-polished stones some
cherts occur with curious spongy surfaces ; indeed not a few
of the stone artifacts which were gathered on these sites
showed this fonn of weathering (plate IV., fig. 1). It can
hardly be doubted that the weathered surface is the result of
exposure of the artifacts since the days of their manufacture.
Many of the stone tools of the Lybian and Egyptian deserts
are afiected in a precisely similar manner, and it seems
probable that the spongy exterior of these stones points to
exposure continued over long periods of time, and may there-
fore be taken as a fair criterion of antiquity. It should be
noted, however, that not all varieties of stone are subject to
this form of decay, and therefore the absence of a spongy
surface is no argument in favour of a recent production. In
the absence of vegetation, the want of water, the characteristic
features of erosion and sun baking, the tracts (a), [h], and (c)
are typical deserts conforming more to the rocky type than to
the sandy variety. They are peculiar in that they are circum-
scribed and abrupt in their occurrence. The exact mode of
their origin is not altogether clear, but the following facts are
suggestive : —

(i.) They are not far from rivers which appear to have
dwindled in volume since their valleys were
excavated.

(ii.) Their surfaces are extremely unfertile, for although
of lower altitude than the surrounding forest
country they support no vegetation.

(iii.) There is no reason to suppose that they are chemi-
cally unfertile.

OCCTJERETfCE OF SMAIX DESERT TRACTS.

171

(iv.) In texture the sedimentary beds are gritty and
coarse. Their component grains and fragments
vary considerably in size. They are generally
more or less angular and are rather tightly packed,
(v.) The red, fertile earth, on the contrary, is fine and
regular in grain, and its individual particles tend
towards a spherical shape. The packing is by no
means tight .

There can bo no question that at one time the red earth
cliff reached as far as the river bank, and it is probable that in
those days precipitation waa greater than now (see note at
bottom of page 167). One may well imagine a gulley running
off the escarpment to the river and being rapidly deepened
during the rainy season. The intermittent stream would soon
cut its way down to the sedimentaries below, and a small
corrie might be started at its head by the collapse of the soft
beds above, facilitated, perhaps, by a spring at their junction
with the underlying series. Phenomena of this nature are
by no means uncommon up-country, where the soft laterite
overlies less permiable beds below. Whatever may be the true
interpretation of the early beginnings of the desert tract,
there is no doubt that exposure of the sedimentaries was the
first landmark in its history, and (given a diminishing rainfall)
from thence onwards the expansion of the barren area was
merely a matter of time.

The thickly forested red earth shows that the unequal
distribution of rainfall throughout the year* is not the main
determining factor in the formation of the desert floors ; but
it seems equally obvious that the absence of moisture is the
cause of the barren nature of the tracts ^ and one naturally turns
40 the consideration of soils as water carriers.

The amount of water that can be held by soils and subsoils
when, saturated depends on the size and shape of the particles and
stones (their mean diameter being termed the effective size), and

on the consequent pore-spaces. Here we cannot do better

than quote from Warington,t who states that, “ if a soil consisted

* Tho yearly average for the part of the country is probably about
forty inches [aee “ Manual of the Puttalam District/’ 1908, p. 20).
t Referring to “ Physical Properties of the Soil/’ 1911.

13

6(8)15

172

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of Spherical particles all of the same size, the empty spaces
between these particles would amount to about 47 per cent, of
the volume with the loosest packing, and to nearly 26 per cent,
with the closest packing. The total empty space would be the
same, whatever the size of the particles. If the interspaces with
the closest packing were occupied by another aet of smaller
spheres, they would be reduced to 6' 7 per cent, of the volume.
If. this process wag again repeated, they would become 1’7 per
cent. With loose packing the proportion of interspaces would,

in all cases, be much larger ’’ In many subsoUs the

ingredients are of various sizes and irregular shapes, as in a
mixture of gravel and sand, or in boulder clay, with a conse-
quent reduction of pore-spacea. In many loams, clays, and marls,
as well as sands, the materials are fairly uniform.*

It will be seen therefore that the character of the desert
floor (recorded above) is such that it is unable to take up as
much water as the red earth ; and we learn, moreover, that
its retentive powers are less, for as Woodward {speaking
on the authority of Warington) says

The amount of water retained by a soil depends on the
extent of the surfaces of the particles to which the water adheres,
not on the volume of the interspaces ; hence, the smaller the
particles, if they are not excessively fine, the greater is the
amount of the water held by capillary attraction.

Add to this the fact that rain falling on a dry soil sinks but
slowly, while in a moist soil it is freely absorbed, and the
apparently anomalous juxtaposition of forest and desert
becomes easy of explanation. It would seem that most of
the rain which falls on the barren tnicts flows rapidly away,
and the remainder is abstracted by the proccs.s of evaporation,
which, in the almost entire absence of vegetable growth, is
unimpeded.

The.se, then, appear to be the conditions which have given
rise to the small desert tracts which are described in these
notes ; —

(i.) The exposure of the sedimentary beds, possibly at a
time when the rainfall was greater — or more evenly
distributed throughout the year— than it is ut
present.

* H. B, Woodward : “ The Geology of Soils and Substrata,*’ 191 2.
t Op. cU.

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS.

173

(ii.) The inability of the sediments to take up moisture
to any considerable extent ; which, combined
with their poor retentive powers, has led, during
the hotter months of the year, to the almost entire
depletion of their free water content.

(iii.) The air spaces between the particles of the now
perfectly dry soil resist the downward percolation
of the rains when they fall ; while in the absence
of a continuous film of wetted particles to establish
surface tension (and thus bear the water down-
wards) this resistance can hardly be overcome.

By the gradual crumbling away of the red earth deposit and
the consequent exposure of fresh sedimentary surfaces the
deserts are slowly expanding. Year by year they encroach
upon the red earth.

Heat and the absence of water are the chief factors in
desert development.* Climate alone may account for desert
conditions, and in this connection Corstorphine calls attention
to the fact that certain sandstones and shales, which yield
deep fertile soils in Southern Transvaal and in the Orange Free
State, form desert areas in Capo Colony. "j" Here in Ceylon our
small desert tracts are due, as we have seen, not so much to tho
arid nature of the climate as to the inability of the ground to
hold water.

Once a desert is started it tends to grow, and our small
examples in Ceylon are no exception to the rule. By the
gradual crumbling away of the red earth deposit, and the
consequent exposure of fresh sedimentary surfaces, the deserts
are slowly expanding. Year by year they encroach upon the
ced earth escarpment, and by imperceptible degree^s the living
forest givas place to the barren wilderness.

Under the present conditions the sedimentary rocks of this
type, and in this part of the country, must always give rise to
^ud tracts — unless the theory advanced for their origin be
wrong.

For an account of the oonditions which make for aridity see Prof,
^viacdougal 8 Paper (Jour. R. G. S., Vol. XXXIX., No. 2, Feb., 1912,
PP- 105-120).

t Proc. Geol. Soe. (S. A.), 1907, p. xix.

174

SPOUA Z]SYLA1?ICA.

It is pleasant to think that it probably lies within the power
of man to control the conditions and reclaim the lost fertility.
But Nature might reclaim it herselfj and one wonders whether
she has not already done so once. The well-defined line of
demarcation between the two sets of deposits exposed along
the scarp points to a discontinuity in the sequence of events.
Thtis, the question arises. Does the upper limit of the lower beds
represent the buried surface of an ancient desert plateau or not ?
It Ls impossible to answer this question definitely at the present
time, but the past existence of large desert tracts in the north
of this country is quite a feasible suggestion, and the geological
evidence, as it stands at present, is, perhaps, rather in favour of
it than otherwise.

Plate L

■A[{I>MI;NT (II DKSKUT T|{

Plait V.

NOTES.

175

NOTES.

^oie on Halodeima atra {Hohthuria atra ). — During a visit
to Galle in April, 1915, Mr. A. C. Hayley drew my attention
to the presence of a worm living upon Halodeima atra, which is
abundant on the reefs fringing the Fort at Galle. Mr. Hayley
accompanied me to that part of the reef which lies between
the lighthouse and the Triton Bastion, where some months
earlier he had found Halodeima atra in abundance. On this
occasion, however, we found no specimens. A few were
discovered on the north-west side of the Triton Bastion, but
the best locality was at the base of the ^lus Bastion.
Incidentally I have suggested to Mr. Hayley that it would be
of interest to determine the seasonal movements of this species
on the reefs at Galle. Many Holothurians were examined by
Mr. Hayley and myself, and about 30 per cent, of the specimens
bore a Polynoid worm . As a rule not more than one worm was
found on a Holothurian . The presence of the worm was difficult
to detect owing to its colour adaptation. The colour of the
general surface of the Holothurian was black or a deep brown,
and the worm was black with a few insignificant white spots.
If the worm were detached from its host it very quickly
returned. Mr. Hayley stated from previous experience that
the worm died very quickly if it were prevented from
returning to its host, but I was unable to verify this. The
identity of the Polynoid worm has not yet been determined.

Mr. Hayley also drew my attention to another case of
commensalism in connection with the same Holothurian.
A small crab was found on a few occasions in the cloaca!
cavity, and in one case in the intertentacular cavity formed
by the partial withdrawal of the tentacles. This crab also
exhibited cryptic colouring. The background was black,
broken here and there by a few yellowish -white linos or spots.
Ihe crab has not yet been identified.

Most of the Holothurians wore found living on sand, and
many oases the back (bivium) was covered with a thin
coating of sandograins fastened together by mucus from the
epidermal cells. There were generally about seven pairs of

176

SPOUA ZJiYLANICA.

small circular patches of black arranged along the back
where the layer of sand was interrupted and the black integu-
ment showed through. It is possible that there may be
groups of sensory cells at these places.

Although Halodmma atra is one of the most abundant, and
at the same time one of the largest Holothuriana found on the
Ceylon coast, it is not used commercially as “ b^he-de-mer ”
or “ trepang.” This is also the case with Bohadschia Tnar-
morata, a large species which is so abundant at Trincomalee.
So far as I know the b^he-de-mer which is most commonly
dried and cured by the Jaffna fishermen for export is
Thymtosicya scahra {fiolothuria scabra).

Colombo, July 16, 1915. JOSEPH PEARSON.

Cannibalism in Pulchriphyllium crurifolium, Serv. — Mr. E. E.
Greeu states in Spolia Zeylanica.VolJIL, p. that specimens

of Pulchriphyllium crurifoUum, Serv., in captivity frequently
nibble away portions of their companions. When Professor
Plate was in Ceylon, ho stated in the course of a lecture delivered
l^efore the Ceylon Natural History Society that Green was
mistaken in supposing that the insects nibble each other. He
remarked that tho erosion of the sides of the body and teg min a,
which Green put down to nibbling, was roallypart of the mimetic
character of the insects, and was not an artificial effect, but
the result of the infinite capacity for variation which this
insect posesses, and which is shown in the oolour-markings.

From personal observation I am able to refute this latter
view of the case, as I have repeatedly witnessed the insects
nibbling each other. It Is amusing to watch the frantic
efforts of a leaf -insect to dislodge its assailant when it is
attacked. The adult insects seem to let each other alone,
but half grown or very young ones are constantly to be seen
chewing calmly, while their victims writhe and struggle to
free themselves. This habit seems to be induced by over*
crowding or shortage of food, and many vegetarian caterpillars
become cannibals under the same circumstances.

Colombo, June, 1916.

G. M. HENRY.

notes.

177

How Lizards Bathe.—Or^ April 12, 1915, after a slight
shower of rain I watched a hzard {Cahte^ versicolor) bathing
It was cn a shoe-flower bush {Hibiscus sp.), and the bathing
consisted in dragging itself along the branches and rubbing
its sides against the wot leaves. I watched it for about five
minutes, while it crawled slowly along and occasionally opened
its mouth as if drinking the drops which adhered to its lips.
It appeared to enjoy the feel of the water on its sides and back '
Birds frequently bathe in the same way. I have seen
a little Ceylonese Sun-bird {Arachnecihra zeyhnica]
“ scrabbling ” about on the curved surface of a canna-leaf
which had just been watered by the garden cooly, and hugely
enjoying itself.

Colombo, June, 1915. HENRY.

Do Bat-snakes Strike ? — Last February my son suffered an
injury to his right foot while going for a rat-snake {S. gerundiya)
in the garden, and subsequently developed an abscess near
the ankle.

The doctor in attendance found no trace of a siiake-bite
wound, and was of opmion that the injury was caused by
a blow (concussion) of some kind.

My son got the impression that he had been struck by the
tail of the reptile, but from inquiries made this docs not
seem probable.

Mr. H. C. P. Bell writes : “ I once drove a rat-snake into
a comer, and the reptile in self-defence literally got its back
apinst the waU and struck at me like a cobra^fortunatcly
without effect. The rat-snake’s bite (indeed the bite of all
snakes) is known to ho slightly poisonous, t.e., likely to cause
indammation for a time. Mr. John Still when with me was
bitten on the finger by an “eye-snake” {S. guUa), and was
laid up with the wound for thr^ days,”

Mr. T. Wiggin, of Anuradhapura, writes ; I have seen
rat-snakes strike out like cobras.”

Kandy, June 11 , 1915.

C. DRIEBERG.

178

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY.

Thirteenth General Meeting.

The Thirteenth (Third Anniversary) General Meeting of the
Society was held in the Colombo Museum on May 7, 1915, with
Dr. Andreas Nell in the chair, llie Secretaries’ and Treaaxirers’
Reports for 1914 were duly adopted. Tlie following were elected
as Office-bearers for 1915 : —

Patron :

His Excellency Sir Robert Chalmers, K.C.B.

President ;

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.S,

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq.

Sir S. D. Bandaranaike, Kt., C.M.G.

Dr. A. Nell, M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Council ;

Joseph Pearson, Esq., D.Sc., I W. E. Wait, Esq., M.A.

F.R.S.E., F.L.S. 0. S. Wickwar, Esq.

T, Fetch, Esq., B.A., B.Sc. I

Joint Hon. Secretaries and Treasurers :

W. A. Cave, Esq.

C. T. Symons, Esq., B.A., F.R.G.B.

Mr. Frederick Lewis read a Paper on “ Some Notes on the
Natural History of the Vedda Country.”*

A few natural history specimens were exhibited.

See p, 119 of this Part.

CEYLON RAILS, WAJ)ERS. UULLS, AND TERNS. 179

NOTES ON CEYLON RAILS, WADERS,
CULLS, AND TERNS.

By W. E. Wait, M.A, M.B.O.U.

{With two Plates,]

S OME time ago it was decided to bring out a handbook
of Ceylon birds, and the work was placed in the hands
of Mr. Frederick Lewis, F.L.S., Mr, W. A. Cave, and the
present writer, with Dr. Pearson as editor. As it is anticipated
that some time may elapse before the whole handbook is
ready for publication, it is thought desirable to place on
record the rough draft of such instalments as have been
completed. The present section deals with the Rails, Waders,
Gulls, and their allies.

The classification followed is that of Dr. Blanford in Vol. IV.
of the series on Birds in the " Fauna of British India,” as
being the standard work on Indian Birds, As is natural, the
present paper is mainly based on that work and on Legge’s
“History of the Birds of Ceylon.” I have, however, endeav-
oured to give as niuch fresh information as was possible on
the distribution and nidification in Ceylon of the various
species. I have also to acknowledge my indebtedness to
Frank Finn’s How to know the Indian Waders.”

The descriptions are taken from specimens, partly in the
Colombo Museum, but mainly from the series in the British
Museum, and I have to thank Mr. Ogilvie Grant for his
kindness in granting me access to the latter.

Lastly, I owe much to Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker for his help
and encouragement to a beginner in ornithology.

2

6 ( 9)16

180

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The measurements given are those adopted in the Fauna
of British India,” expressed in inches and decimals, viz. : —

Length. — Prom the tip of the bill to the tip of the longest
tail feather.

Tail . — Prom the root of the tail on the underside to the tip
of the longest feather,

WLig. — The greatest distance from the bend of the folded
wing, to the tip of the longest quill, measured straight.

Tarsus . — The distance from the centre of the joint of the
tarsus with the tibia to the base of the middle toe.

Bill. — The distance from the angle of the gape to the tip,
measured straight.

The rough keys do not pretend to be based on strictly
scientific distinctions, or to hold good for other species than
those on the Ceylon list.

Order GRALL>C.

8nb-order FULICARLP.

Fajnily Halltd.e.

The Indian members of this order are divided into three
sub-orders : Fidicarise, tho Rails ; Orue.s, the Crajies ; and
Otides, the Bustards. In Ceylon, however, wo have no
Cranes or Bustards, and tho Fulimrii^ are confined to a single
family BaUidse, ^^hich comprises the true Rails, the Crakes,
and the Water Hens.

The Ceylon inembero of the family are all inarsh birds,
greatly given to skulking in reeds and thick grassy swamps.
Owing to their fondness for keeping to cover, it is probable
that soine of our rarer species are in reidity far more generally
distributed than w^ould appear from the few recorded occur-
rences. Rails are usually slender in build, and stand fairly
high on the legs. The toes are long and narrow^ and not
webbed, though all our species are good swimmers. The
wings are short, and the flight awkward ; but in spite of this
several species are inigratory, and must cover long distances.
The tail is short and constantly jerked up and down as the
birds walk. Tho hill is usually modoratriy stout, the nostrils
linear and lying in a grove.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 181

The family is mainly vegetarian, feeding on seeds, grain,
and water plants, but the food in addition consists of insects,
larvse, and tho smaller forms of molluscs and crustaceans.

The nest is generally a large rough structure of grass or
rushes placed on or near the ground. Tho eggs are spotted
with two different colours, aiid are usually fairly numerous.
The young when hatched are covered with down, and can run
and swim within a few hours of their birth.

Within our limits are found nine species, each the sole
representative of its genus, with the exception of Amaurornis,
of which we have tw^o members. Tho four larger species are
resident and comparatively abundant, the five smaller are
rare and mainly migratory, though two of them have been
known to nest in the Island, and a third may possibly do so,
as it is partially resident throughout its range in India and
Burma.

Hough Key to the Ceyhn Rallidx.

I. — Bill from gape not shorter than tarsus. Length 10 to
11 inches.

(ft) Bill slender, back streaked brown and black,

Rallus indicus (Indian Water Kail).

{b) Bill stouter, hack brown speckled with white.

Hypotasnidia striata ( Hlue-brcasled Banded Rail).

IL — Bill from gape much shorter than tarsus.

A. — ^No frontal shield.

(а) Length 7 ‘ 5 inches. Upper parts brown, streaked

l)lack, and smeareil ^vith white,

Porzana pusilla (Eastern Bail Ion’s Crake).

(б) Length 10 inches. Back olive-brown, Low^or

parts below breast barreil black and white.
Rallina super cili arts (Banded Cbxko).

(c) Length 8 inches. Upper plumage olive-brown,
lower parts vinous chestnut,

Amaurornis fuscu-s (Ruddy Cra^e).

{d) Length 12 inches. Upper plumage black, breast
white, stern chestnut.

A ymurornis pkoamcimts ( Whi te - breas ted
Water Hen).

182

SPOLIA ZRYLANTCA.

B. — Length 12 inches or over. A horny shield on forehead
form,ed by a backward prolongation of upper
mandible.

(а) Sexes alike, frontal shield rounded behind, toes

with a narrow straight fringe.

GaUimda ckloropus (Moor Hen).

(б) Sexes dissimilar, shield pointed behind and, in

breeding males, prolonged into a horn, toes
not fringed.

OalUcrex dnerpa (Water Cock).

(c) Shield square behind, sexes alike, plumage
blue.

Porphyrio poHocepJiahs (Purple Moor Hen).

Rallus indicus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 158 ; Legge, p. 778).

The Indinn Water Roil.

Description. — Upper plumage black wuth wide olive-brown
margins to the feathers ; ashy gray above the eye, on the
cheeks, and sides of throat ; a dark brown streak from the
bill through the eye to the ear coverts ; most of wing quills
dark brown ; chin white ; low er parts ashy gray, washed wdth
brown on the breast ; flanks barred black and white ; under
tail coverts black, edged with white.

Young birds have white bands on the wing coverts.

Bill brown, the ba,sal portion of Lhc low“er mandible scarlet
in adults, yellowy -red in young birds. Iris red ; lege and feet
dull yellowish-pink.

Ijcngth about 11 ; wing 5 ; hiil 2 ; tarsus 1*7 ; bill from
gape 1*75, Females rather smaller.

Distribution —A rare straggler to Ceylon. The only
specimens recorded are a few^ birds taken years ago near
Ja-ela. A winter visitor to parts of India, also occurring in
China, Eastern Siberia, and Japan.

Habits. — A shy skulking bird found in grass and rushes
round marshes or in paddy fields. It does not breed within
the Indian limits.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GCLLS, AND TERNS. 183

HYPOTiENiDiA STRIATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 160 ;

Logge, p. 775).

The Blue-breasied Banded Rail.

Description . — Crown and back of the neck chestnut ; rest
of the upper surface, including wings and tail, dark olive -
brown speckled with broken w^hite crosslMrs. Throat and
chin white ; face, foreneck, and breast ashy gray ; remainder
of the under surface blackish with white bars.

Females are duller, and have the middle of the abdomen
dirty white.

Young birds have a brown cap and no white crossbars on
the back.

Bill stouter and shorter than in the last species and variable
in colour ; ujiper mandible brown, lower some shade of red ;
legs and feet olive -green or gray ; iris red or yellowy-b^o^\m.

Length 10*5; wing 4*65; tail 1*75; tarsus 1*55; bill
from gape 1*65.

Dislribuiion . — A rare resident scattered through the low-
country ; some birds may be migrants. The species occurs
in the greater part of India and Burma, and through South-
eastern Asia to the Malay Archipelago, and the Philippines.

Habits . — Similar to those of the last species, but the bird is
more silent. It breeds apparently during the wet weather, as
I have one clutch of eggs tiiken in December in the North -
Western Province. The nest was a pad of flattened -down
grass stalks on the edge of a paddy field ; eggs five in number,
pinky-white, rather sparingly spotted, chiefly at the larger
end, w*ith reddish-brown and pale grayish-purple. They
measured 1*30 by 1*02.

PoRZANA PUSiLLA {Blanford, Vol. IV.. p. 165).

PORZANA BAILLONI (LoggC, p. 766).

The Eastern Baillon's Crake,

Description . — Upper plumage brown with black' streaks and
some white marks as if smeared with white paint. Face,
throat, neck, and breast ashy-gray ; a brow*n stripe runs
from the base of the bill through the eye to the side of the neck ;

184

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

abdomen barred black and white. In young birds the gray
of the lower parts is replaced by buff.

Bill short and comparatively stout, green in colour ; iris
in adults red, in young birds reddish-brown ; legs and feet
green tinged with yellow ; toes long.

Length about 7’5 ; wing 3*5 ; tail 1’75 ; tarsus 1*1; hill
from gape '7.

Didribution. — May be looked for in swamps throughout the
low -country. Only recorded a few times from Oeylon, but
largely overlooked ownng to its small size and skulking habits.
On one circuit in the Southern Province I came across five
specinrcns. Most birds aro probably migratory, but some may
possibly be found breeding.

Found scattered throughout India and Burma in suitable
localities, its range extending through Eastern Asia. Most
birds are migratory, but some reside in India all the year
round.

Habits . — This is smallest of our rails, being no larger than a
slim quail. It runs in and out of the rushes round the edges
of sw^amps, keeping much to cover and being hard to flush.
The nest is the usual pad of rushes, grass, &c., on floating
vegetation or amongst swam])y grass. The eggs are live to
seven in number, pale olive, rather streakily marked with
darker brown, and measure about 1 • 16 by ' 87.

Rallina suPERCiLiAEis (Blauford, Vol. IV., p. 167 .

Rallina EUKYZONOiDES (Loggo, p. 772).

I'he Banded Crake.

(Plato I., fig, 1.)

De.scription. — Head, neck, and upper breast chestnut ;
chin and throat whitish ; remainder of upper plumage dark
brownish-olive ; rest of louder parts boldly barred black and
white.

An old female in the Museum collection resembles the male,
another, probably younger, has the crown and nape olive-
brown.

Young birds are brown on the head, neck, and breast.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, DULLS, AND TERNS. 185

Bill of moderate length and fairly stout, dark brown in
colour and green at the base ; iris blood -red ; legs and feet
grayish-black.

Length about 10 ; wing 5 ; tail 2*2 ; tarsus 1*7 ; bill from
gape 1*2.

Distnhutio7i . — A rare but fairly constant migrant to the
Island, arriving in October or November, and leaving probably
about February. Stray specimens have been recorded from
various parts of India and the Malay Peninsula. Its summer
quarters are unknown.

Habits . — Rather a mysterious bird ; most of the specimens
have been obtained in (’oloinbo, where they arrive about the
end of October in a very exhausted condition. On arrival
they generally seek refuge in bungalows, hiding in any odd
comer they can find. When they recover from their journey
they make for the hills. The bird is nocturnal in its habits,
and frequents sedgy streams and paddy fields up-country.
Sometimes it wanders into the jungle far from water.

Amaueornis fuscus (Blanford, Vol, IV., p. 170).

PORZANA FUSCA (Leggc, p. 760),

The Ruddy Crake.

Upper plumage olive-brown ; forehead, sides
of the head, neck, and lower parts, except the abdomen,
vinous chestnut ; a trace of white on the throat ; abdomen
and lower tail coverts brown with whitish streaks.

Young birds arc uniformly dusky olive, with the exception
of the chin, throat, and centre of the abdomen, wFich are
wFitish.

Bill olive- browm ; iris orange -red ; legs and feet reddish.

Length about 8 ; wing 4 ; tail Uo ; tarsus 1’4 ; bill from
gape about I'O.

Disirihuiion . — Scattered sparingly through the low -country.
Most birds are probably migrants, but some undoubtedly
breed with us.

The species occurs throughout India and Burma, the range
extending through South-eastern Asia and the iwljoining
islands to China and Japan.

186

SPOLIA ZEYLAMCA.

Habits . — Frequents rushy ponds and swamps, hunting for
food on floating lily leaves or amongst the vegetation in
swamps. It occasionally wanders up-country. The nest is
the usual pad of weeds or grass placed either on floating
weeds, or amongst the herbage in swampy ground. The eggs
three to five in number, measure about 1 ’ 2 by '84, and are of
creamy white streaked and spotted with reddish-brown and
pale.inky purple.

Amaurornts PHCENiciTEUS (Blaiiford, Vol IV., p. 173),
Erythra pHtENicuRA {Legg 0 , p. 786).

The White-breasted Water Hen.

(Plate I., fig. 2.)

—Upper plumage and sides of body slaty black
tinged with olive : forehead, sides of face, and lower parts
from chin to breast white ; abdomen rufescent darkening to
chestnut on the vent and under tail coverts.

In young birds the forehead, crown, and up])er parts are
olive-brown, and the white feathers of the lower parts have
dusky tips.

Bill greenish, red at the base ; iris brown or brownish-red ;
legs olive-yellow.

Length 12 ; wing 6 ■ 25 ; tail 2 • 5 ; tamiis 2*25 ; bill from
gape 1 ‘ 5. Females slightly smaller.

Distribution . — Abundant in the neighbourhood of water
all over the low -country and up to about 2,000 or 3,000 feet.
Ranges through India and Burma and the greater part of the
Oriental region.

Habits . — This bird with its loud cry must bo familiar to
most people in Ceylon. It often wanders some way from
water to feed in the open, but it makes a bee -lino for cover
at a sharp run whenever disturbed. The nest is a largo pad
of rushes, grass, or leaves, sometimes on floating clumps of
vegetation, sometimes on swampy ground, or occasionally in
bushes or reeds a little away above the surface of the water.
The eggs are four to seven in number, elongated ovals, obtuse
at both ends. They are creamy white in colour with pale

CEYLON KAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 187

grayish-ptirple blotches overlaid with markings of deeper
red-brown, mostly round the large end, but often longitu-
dinally streaked over the rest of the surface. Average
measurements 1 • 59 by 1 • 19.

Galunula chloropus (Blanford, Vol, IV., p. 175 ;

Leggo, p. 781).

The Moor Hen or Water Hen.

Description. — Back and wing coverts olive- brown ; tertiaries
and upper tail coverts nisty-brown ; primary coverts and wing
quills almost black ; head and jieck slaty-black shading into
slate-gray on breast and hanks ; some white streaks on the
flanks and a white patch under the tail ; middle of abdomen
almost always partly white.

Bill yellow at the tip, remainder red ; the upper mandible
prolonged on the forehead into a red shield rounded at the
back ; iris red ; legs olive-green, with an orange garter just
below the feathered portion.

Young birds are lighter above, and the slate-gray of the
lower parts is mixed with whitish ; bill and shield olive
coloured ; orange garter absent.

Length 12‘5 ; wing 6*5 ; tail 2*75 ; tarsus 1‘9 ; bill from
gape 1*1, Females sUghtly smaller.

Distrihution . — This species, which was a great rarity in
Legge's time forty years ago, has rapidly increased, and is
abundant on the marshes and lagoons of the Hambantota
District, where it breeds freely. I have also found it resident
on some of the larger tanks in the North-Central Province,

It occurs as a resident or partial migrant throughout India
and Burma, and ranges over the greater part of the Old World,
hemg the species so common in the British Isles.

Habits. —Found on reedy tanks .and marshes, often in the
water, being a good swimmer. In Ceylon I have always
found the nest to be a fairly thick platform of rushes, &c.,
about 6 to 8 inches across, W'odged in among the stems of
rushes growing in shallow water. The breeding season is
about March, and again in July. Eggs vary from five to nine

3 6(9)16

188

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

in number ; oval slightly pointed at one end ; ground colour
drab or brownish -stone, sparingly blotched or spotted with
chocolate or reddish-brown, and a few paler purplish markings.
Average measurements 1* 62 by 1 * 16.

Galucrex cinerea (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 176 ;

Legge, p. 791).

The Water Cock.

Description . — Males in breeding plumage almost uniformly
slaty-black, more or less tinged wnth gray on the head, neck,
and lower parts, and generally with a little white on the
abdomen ; back and wings blackish-brown.

Out of the breeding season males assume the same plumage
as females, which have the upper parts dark brown, with paler
brown edges to the feathers, except on the crown ; lower
parts light brown, w ith fine wavy dark brown bars.

Ill young birds the barring on the low er parts is less distinct,
and soraotimes absent.

Bill and frontal shield, which is pointed behind, are red in
males; in the breeding season the shield of the male is
lengthened into a horn ; legs red ; iris rod. Females have
yellowish bills, dusky green legs, and brown irid^.

Length: Males, 16-5; w'ing 8*5; tail 3; tarsus 3; bill
from gape Loo. Females, length 14; wing 7*0; tail 2*8;
tarsus 2*6; bill from gape 1*4.

Distribution. ^Found locally in marshy ground throughout
the low-country, (.dmmon in the damper plains of India and
Burma, and extends through South-eastern Asia to Java, the
Philippines, and Japan.

Habits.— A long-legged, long-toed rail, rather nocturnal in
its habits, and keeping to cover in the thick grass of swamps
and wet paddy fields. Mainly a v^etarian, and very good
to eat.

The nest is the usual large pile of grass among reeds or on
floating vegetation. The breeding season is said to be in July or
August. The eggs rather resemble those of the White-breastod
Water Hen, but are brow'uer and larger, averaging about 1 * 7
by 1*27.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 189

PoRPHVRio pouoOEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 178 ;

Legge, p. 795).

The Purple Moor Hen or Blue Coot.

Description. —Gmevskl colour of upper plumage, flanks, and
abdomen purplish-blue ; head and face grayish ; wings and
chest greenish-blue ; under tail coverts white ; unexposed
portion of wing and tail feathers black. Tho bill is stout, the
nostrils rounded and not situated in a groove, the frontal shield
is sf^uaro behind ; both bill and shield bright red ; iris red ; legs
fleshy red.

Length 17 ; wing 10 ; tail 3’6 ; tarsus 3*4 ; bill from gape
1-5.

Distribution.— l!^MmQTom on the brackish lagoons and
fresh -water swamps of the South-east Coast, and found locally
inland on large swampy tanks. Occurs tliroughout India and
Burma in suitable situations, and extends westward as far as
tho Caspian Sea.

fiahiU . — A conspicuous marsh bird wuth its bright blue
plumage. Bather heavier in build than most rails, with
longish legs and bony toes. The fliglit is aw-kw-ard, and in
flying the legs are extended at full length behind the bird. It
often sw-arms in masses of tangled rushes, and when flushed
takes fairly readily to wing. In tho Southern Province it
breeds freely about February, and again in July.

The nest varies from a large structure of rushes, &c.,
wedged in bulrush thickets to quite a moderate pad of grass
on grassy islets or among floating vegetation.

The eggs, four to eight in number, rather resemble larger
editions of those laid by the common Moor Hon, being stone
colour, with fairly bold spots of reddish -browir and paler spots
of grayish -purple. Average measurements 1*98 by 1*38.

Note . — The Coot, FuUcci atra, a widely distributed member
of the family, has not yet been recorded authentically from
Ceylon, but a good lookout should be kept for it.

Tho species may easily bo distinguished by its slaty-black
plumage, white bill and shield, and from the fact that tho
toes are furnished with lobed fringes.

190

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order LIMIGOL/E.

The. Waders.

The members of this large order, as their name implies,
are mainly birds of the seashore, of sandy wastes, or of marshes.

The formation of the legs and feet is usually adapted for
running and wading. The birds seldom perch, and the hind
toe in consequence is generally minute and often wanting.
The tarsus in most cases is comparatively lengthy, and not
only it, but also the lower half of the tibia are naked. The toes
are seldom conspicuously webbed, but most species can swim
well. Many of the birds are migratory, and the flight of
almost all is strong, the wing quills being well developed.
The bill shows great diversity. It may be long and straight like
the snipe’s, pigeon-shaped as in the plover, curve up like the
avocet’s, or doAni like the curlew’s. It is, however, generally
slender, with the nostril carried in a lateral groove. As regards
nidification, the eggs are nearly always laid on the ground,
with a scanty nest hning or none at all. The young when
hatched are covered with down, and can run about forthwith.

The order is divided into flve families, one of which, the
Ckaradriidx, is well represented, comprising, as it does, the
plovers, avocets, sandpipers, and snipes. The other four
are small, and include groups of birds which — though their
internal structure shows them to be nearly related to the
plovers— often differ considerably in Outward appearance,
and in several cases point to affinities with other orders. The
(Edicyiemidse, Stone Plovers, resemble the Bustards ; while
the Crab Plover, sole representative of the Dromadidrn', is
distinctly related to the Gulls. The remaining two families
are the GlareoUdx (Coursers and Swallow Plovers) and the
Parridse (Ja^anas).

Family (Edicnemid^.

The Stone Plovers.

A small family, limited in Ceylon to two species placed in
separate genera. They are rather bigger than the ordinary
run of plovers, with heavier and stouter bills. The plumage
is harsh and stiff. The bind toe is absent ; the three front

CKYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TEENS. 191

toes are short and stout, and united by a slight web at the
base. The eyes are very large, and the birds are rather
nocturnal in their habits.

There is no nest, two eggs as a rule being laid on the bare
ground.

Rough Key to Ceylon Stone Plovers.

A. — Length 16 inches. Bill from gape 2 inches in length,

and moderately stout.

(Ediemmus scolojxix (Stone Curlew).

B. — Length 20 inches. Bill from gape over 3 inches, and

large and heavy.

Esacus recuTvirostris (Great Stone Plover).

GEdicnemus scolopax (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 204 ;

Leggo, p. 969).

The Stone. Curlew,

Descriptio^i , — Upper plumage sandy browm or buff, the
feathers with blackish shaft-stripes ; lores, eyebrow, and a
stripe below' the eye creamy-white ; two white bars across the
wnng coverts, and between the]n a band of browmish -black.
Wing quills blackish-brown ; a white patch on each of the
first two or three primaries ; tips and roots of the later
primaries white, as are the basal parts of the inner wxbs of the
earlier secondaries. Tail ashy-brown with a bold black and
a white bar on all but the two middle feathers. Lower parts
white to rufous with blackish shaft-stripes on the neck, upper
breast, and sides of body. Young birds have irregular darker
bandings on wing coverts and tail feathers.

Bill black at the end, yellow at the base ; iris large, and
bright yellow ; legs and feet greenish-yellow.

Length 16; wing 8*5; tail 4*5; tarsus3*l ; bill from gape 2*0.

Distribution . — Thinly though fairly widely distributed
round tho sandy coasts of the dry zone, and occasionally
found inland on sun-baked fallow stretches of paddy land.
Occurs throughout India and Burma in suitable localities, its
range extending from England southw^ards to North Africa,
and eastwards to Central and South-western Avsia.

J92

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits . — A wary bird, fond of dry open ground. It hag the
same trick as the Bustard of lying flat on the ground to escape
detection. The ^^i\d shrill cry is rather like that of the Curlew .

The breeding season is probably about March, and again in
July. Two, or occasionally three, eggs are laid in a slight
depression of the ground.

The ground colour is buff or olive-green with blackish
clouds and blotches, and sometimes paler purplish markings.
Average size about 1 ■ 90 by 1 *40.

Esacus recurvirostrts (Blaiiford, Vol. IV., p. 205 ;

Legge, p. 974).

The Great Stone Plover.

(Plate I., fig. 3.)

Description . — Upper parts ashy -brown, with darker narrow
shaft-stripes ; base of forehead, lores, orbits, and a stripe
behind the eye \vhito. The last-mentioned white stripe is
bordered above and below by a black band, which runs round
the front of the eye ; another dark stripe from the gape of the
bill dowm the cheeks. Creater and ni,edian wing coverts
lighter than the back and with a pearly tinge ; on the lesser
wing coverts a dark-brown band edged with white. Wing
quills blackish, with a white band on the first three primaries ;
sixth primary with some white on the inner web, and later
primaries white banded with black. All tail feathers, except
the middle pair, barred with white, and black at the tip.

Under plumage whitish, more or less tinged with gray on
the fore-ncck and upper breast ; under tail coverts tinged
with rufous.

Bill powerful and straight along the ridge, yellow^ at the
base, remainder black ; iris very large and yellow ; legs and
feet pale yellowish-green.

Length 20 ; wing 10‘5 ; tail 4-75 ; tarsus 3*25 ; billfromgapo3’5.

Distribution . — Confined to dry sandy stretches near the
shore or round coastal lagoons ; may occasionally be found
inland round the larger tanks if they have gravelly margins
or a small rocky island in the middle. Found throughout
India and Burma on the banka of large rivers.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 193

Habits . — The birds are usually met with in pairs, which
keep almost entirely to one beat. Like the last species, it is
semi -nocturnal. In India this Stone Plover almost always
haunts the banks of rivers. In Ceylon it is mainly found on
the seashore, and would thus seem in its habits to approach
the allied E. magniroslris, a littoral species which ranges from
Australia to the Andan^ans. The series in the British Museum
included only one skin from Ceylon, but I rather fancy that
when a larger series of specimens and eggs from tliis Island
can be compared they will establish a slight racial distinction
approaching the larger and darker Australian bird with a
higher upper mandible and curved culmeii.

The birds breed in March and April, and perhaps again in
July, laying two eggs in a slight hollow in the sand or among
stones. In shape these are slightly pointed ovals ; stone-
coloured, scrawled and blotched with umber, the larger
blotches being partly overlaid with black. The average size
of a small Ceylon series is 2 ’25 by 1*68,

Family Dromadid^e.

The Crah Phvers.

The family is restricted to a single genus and species occurring
on the shores of the Indian Ocean. In outward appearance
and habits this bird shows a strong resemblance to the Gulls.
The hind toe is fairly well developed ; the front toes are long
and noticeably webbed ; the bill is strong, stout, and longer
than the head ; the nostrils are oval and placed, not in a
groove, but in a small depression. The nidification is unlike
that of any other member of the order, a single white egg
being laid in a burrow.

Dromas ardeola (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 208 ;

Legge, p. 9fll).

The Cruh Plover.

Descri'j^ion . — General colour white pied with black, the
black being confined to the back, the elongated feathers of
the mantle, the greater wing coverts, and the major portion

194

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of the wing quills. There is also a small black speck in front
of and behind each eye.

Young birds are gray on the upper parts and streaked with
black on the head and nape.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet grayish-blue ;
claws black.

Length 16; wing 8-25; tail 2-8; tarsus 3*7o; bill from
gape 2’ 75.

Distribution. — Found in small numbers, chiefly on the
north coast from Mannar to Triiicpmalee. Its range extends
from the shores of East iVfrica to those of the Bay of Bengal.

Habits.— A curious bird, con lined to the sea coast or shores
of salt lakes ; as a rule gregarious. Crabs are its main food.
The flight and gait are those of a Plover. Breeds about the
end of May. The bird digs in a sandy boach a long curved
burrow, in which it lays a solitary white egg measuring about
2*50 by 1*75.

Family Glareolid^.

Coursers and Swallow Plovers.

A family confined to the Old World. In it— with the excep-
tion of a genus which does not occur withiji Indian limits — the
nostrils are not pierced through the bill, as in all the other
groups of the order, but have a partition between them.

The bill is slight and not grooved. None of the forms are
large. The eggs resemble those of Plovers, but are of a more
dumpy ova! and less pointed at the narrow end. ' There are
tw'O well-marked sub -families.

(а) The Coursers [Cursoriinse).

(б) The Swallow Plovers {Glarcolinx).

Sub 'family Cnrsoriinee.

Genus CurSOllUS.

The Coursejrs.

Represented in Ceylon by a single species. The Cgursers
are great runners, and frequent dry plains. The tarsus is
longish, and there is no hind toe. In outward appearance
they are not unlike small Lapwings, but the bill is pointed,
and not swollen at the tip.

CBYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 195

CuRSORius COROMANDELTCUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 210 ;

Legge, p. 977).

The Indian Courser,

Description . — Upper plumage in general gra3rish' brown ;
forehead and crown rich chestnut, the long crown feathers
partly concealing a black patch on the nape. A broad white
stripe ruriffrom near the bill over each eye meeting at the
nape ; this is bordered below by a black band running through
the eye. Chin white, passing into rufous on the throat ;
upper neck, all round fore-neck, and breast rufous, deepening
into chestnut on the lower breast ; centre of the abdomen
black ; the lower abdomen, flanks, upper and under tail
coverts white. The sides of the body and axilJaries the same
gray-brown as the back. Primary coverts and primary quills
black ; seeotidaries grayish towards the ends and tipped with
white. All except the two middle feathers of the tail are
banded with black and tipped with white, the w^hitc increasing
towards the sides of the tail, the outer feathers being practi-
cally all white.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Young birds are mottled all over above with browm and
buff, with some spots as w’ell on the under plumage.

Bill blackish, moderately long, slender, and slightly curved ;
iris dark brown ; legs .and feet wliite or w hitish -yellow ;
claws black.

Length 9 ; wing 6 ; tail 2*25 ; tarsus 2*1; bill from gape 1*1.

Distribution , — The north-w’est coast, from the Jaffna
Peninsula to the boundary of the Puttalam District. Occurs
through a great part of the Indian Peninsula, except in the
north-west.

Habits , — In Ceylon it is restricted to sandy wastes and
bare pasturages near the sea. In India it is also found in
open sandy or stony plains inland.

Generally seen in small scattered troops running hither and
thithe» in search of insects. It appears to breed about March,
and probably later in the year, laying on the bare ground
two, or sometimes three, eggs, broad oval in shape, and
stone -coloured, with dull black scrawds, mottlings and blotches.
Average size about 1*20 by *97.

4

6(9)16

196

SPOLIA ZEYLANTCA.

Sub-family Olareolinse.

Genus Glareola.

The Pratincoles or Srvallow Plovers,

A small group of birds, whicb in outward build and flight
much resemble Swallows. The wings are long, reaching when
closed well beyond the tail. The bill is short and curved, and
the gap© wide. The legs are short ; the hind toe is fairly
well developed, and there is a trace of webbing between the
middle and outer toes. The birds are crepuscular in their
habits, hawking for flying insects in the evening and early
morning, and resting on the ground during the day.

Two species are found in Ceylon.

Hough Key lo Ceylon Species.

A. — Tail deeply forked ; wing over 7 inches.

Q. orieritalis (Large Indian fSwallow Plover).

B. — Tail only slightly forked ; wing under 6 inches.

0, lactea (Small Indian Swallow Plover).

Glareola orientalis (Blanford. Vol. IV., p. 214 ;

Legge, p, 980).

The Large Indian Sivallow Plover,

Description . — Upper plumage brown to brownish-olive,
tinged with rufous on the back of the neck. Wing quills
blackish-brown, the primaries almost black, the tertiaries
lighter ; shaft of the first primary whitish ; upper tail coverts
white ; tail feathers white at the base with broad brown tips.
Lores dusky-browm ; chin and throat rufous buff, ringed
round by a narrow black band, edged with white on the
inside, which runs from the gape. Upper breast olive-brown,
passing through rufous on the chest into sullied white on the
abdomen and lower tail coverts. The greater portion of the
wing lining and axillaries is chestnut.

Young birds have no gorget, and are mottled brown and
buff above, The gorget is not assumed until the upper
plumage has lost its mottling.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 197

Bill black, vermilion round the gape ; iris dark brown ; a ring
of white skin round the orbit ; legs and feet reddish-brown.

Length 9*5 ; wing 7*4 ; tail 3 ; depth of fork I'O ; tarsus
r3; bill from gape 1*0,

Distribution. — Resident in a few scattered colonies round
large tanks, such as Minneri and Kanthalai, and on the shores
of lagoons in the Ilambantota District. Locally distributed
i]i India and Burma, ranging north-east through China, and
south-east to Australia,

HahiU. — Already described in my remarks on the sub-family,

I have taken the eggs twice, both times in the same locality
in the Hambantota District, once in April and once in July,
In each case the two eggs w^ere laid on a small disintegrated
patch of dry cowdung in dry sandy pasture near a lagoon.
They are dumpy, slightly pointed ovals, rather velvety in
appearance. The ground colour is drab, fairly evenly blotched
with brown-black markings over fainter w^ashy splotches of
gra;\ash-purpl6. Average size 1 *20 by *93.

Glaeeola lactea (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 21fi ;

Legge, p. 984).

Th(>. Small Indian Swallow Phvrr.

(Plate!., fig 4.)

Description. — Upper plumage pale ashy-gray, darker on
the forehead, Primarj^ quills and wing lining black ; there
is some w*hite on all the primaries, except the first two, the
white incrciising on the secondaries, which are black only
towards the tip. Upper tail coverts white ; tail white with
a broad black border tipped on all but the two central feathers
with w'hite. Chiu whitish ; throat, foreneck, and upper
breast ashy-gray, tinged more or less with rufous ; abdomen
and under tail coverts w*hite.

Bill black, red at the base, and yellowish round the gape ;
iris dark brown ; a creamy orbital ring ; logs and feet browixish.

Length 6*5; wing 5*9; tail 2*0; tarsus *75; bill from
gape *75.

DisinbuiioH. — Fairly common iu«u' Hambantota, and
found in a few other localities in the dry zone by the coast or

198

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

inland round some of the larger tanks. A resident in suitable
localities on the plains of India east of the Indus and in Burma,

Habits . — Those of the genus. In Ceylon this species haunts
sand banks near the sea, or the sandy shores of inland tanks ;
in India it is mainly found on the sandy beds of large rivers.
With us it breeds about Apiil. Ihvo eggs from Minneri were
laid on bare gravelly sand under the shade of a small plant.
Clutches in India vary from 2 to 4. The ground colour is pale
brownish-buff, rathei sparingly speckled with pale gray'
purple and light umber. ’^Phe average of my two Ceylon
eggs is 1*02 by *81.

Family Parhid^,

The Ja^ams.

Genus Hydrophasianus.

A family with only one representative in Ceylon, though
other genera are met with all over the tropics. They are
marsh birds, distinguishable by their feet ; all the toes, including
the hind toe, being enormously long, and furnished with
equally long clavs, thus enabling the bird to run easily over
floating water leaves. The bill is plover-like.

In the genus Hydrophasianus, of which our Water Pheasant
is the sole species, the first wing quill is elongated into a
curious little lance -shaped tip connected with the rest of the
feather by a slender and flexible shaft.

The shape of the fourth quill is also peculiar, running into
a point. The genus is further noticeable from the fact that
in the breeding season both sexes assume a nuptial plumage
with longer tail feathers, and develop a strong sharp spur on
the bend of the wing.

Hydrophasiaisus chirurgus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 219 ;

Leggo, p. 914).

2'he Pheasant -tailed Ja^am or Water Pheasant.

Description.— WmiGT : Upper plumage in general brown,
darker on the lower back and rump, and speckled with white
on the forehead and crown ; a white stripe on the lores and
above the eye ; behind the eye this stripe becomes a broaden-
ing band of yellowfsh'brown running down the side of the

CEYLON RAILS. WADERS, OULLS. AND TERNS. 199

neck ; below this is a black stripe running from each side of
the gape and meeting in a broad band across the breast. The
remainder of the lower parts with the outer tail feathers are
white- Wing coverts largely white, the inner, median, and
greater coverts being barred with brown and buff. First
primary black ; second with a w'hite patch on the inner web
near the root ; the w^hite gradually increases on the next
quills, the secondaries being entirely white.

Breeding plumage : Heivd, throat, and foreneck u hite ;
the back of the neck glistening golden yellow, bordered on
each side by a black stripe, and in front by a black patch on
the nape ; back, scapulars, tertiaries, and lower plumage from
the neck dow^n chocolate-brown ; tail, upper tail coverts, and
rump black ; wing coverts and wing lining white ; wing
quills remain as in winter. The tail increases in length from
about 4 inches to nearly a foot.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Young birds are like adults in winter plumage, but have a
rufous head and rufous edges to the feathers of the upper parts ;
the gorget is wanting, the upper breast being speckled brown.

In the breeding season the bill is bluish, the iiis brown, and
the legs and feet plumbeous black ; in winter the bill is dark
brown, paler at the tip, the iris yellow', and the legs greenish.

Length of male in winter 12, in summer 18; wing 7*8;
tail in winter 3‘7l), in summer 10 ; tarsus 2 ; bill from gape
1*3. Females : length in winter 15, in summer 21 ; wing 9.

Distribution.— Common throughout the low-country w’her-
ever there are suitiible sheets of water. The species extends
all over India and Burma, and oastw*ards to South China mid
the Philippines.

Habits . — Frequents tanks and still sheets of water covered
with lotus leaves, over w hich it runs rapidly, feeding on insects,
crustaceans, and vegetible matter. The cry rather resembles
the mewing of a cat, The breeding season is from about March
to June. The nest is generally a blob of floating w’aterw'eed,
almost awash, but sometimes the eggs are laid on bare floating
lotus leaves. They are four in number, peg-top shaped, and
in colour a glossy bronze, which becomes lighter as incubation
proceeds. Average measuroment about 1*44 by 1*06.

200

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Family CHARAnRiiDiE.

Plovers, Sandpipers, Sid-pes, t^c.

A large family, comparatively well represented in Ceylon.
The forms vary greatly in size, in length of bill and of limb.
The tail is always short, the hind toe short or absent, and the
wing usually strong. The gape of the mouth is peculiarly
narrow, never extending further back than the feathering of
the' forehead. All of them are ground birds, only a few
species over perching, and those but occasionally. With one
exception, a migrant breeding in cold northern climates, the
eggs are laid on the ground unth little or no nest lining. The
eggs are four in number, peg-top shaped and spotted ; the
ground colour being drab or some approximate tint.

The family as classified by Blanford falls into four fairly well-
marked sub -families, which may be distinguished as follows : —

A. ^ — Bill short and, with one exception, pigeon -shaped ; the

groove from the nostrils extending for not more than
half tho length of the bill.

Choradriinss (Plovers).

B. — Bill long, plumage pied.

Hiernalopodinss (Stilts, Avoeets, &c.).

0. — Bill variable ; nasal groove extending for more than half
the length of the bill ; plumage not pied, a distinct
summer and winter dress.

Totaninss (Curlew’s, Sandpipers, &c.).

D. — ]5ill long ; eyes large, and placed far back ; toes without
a trace of w^ob.

Scolopacinss (Snipes).

Sub-family Charadriinos .

The Plovers.

Plovers are birds not so much ot the marsh, as of grassy or
sandy places. They are often found near water, but not, as a
rule, actually in swamps . Many of the smaller species haunt the
seashore. The genus Sirepsilas (the Turnstone) staneb apart, m
having the bill straight and pointed ; whereas in all the true
Plovers tho bill is shaped like that of a pigeon, with the tip
the upper mandible swollen and the ridge curved at the end.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 201

We have one species of Turnstone in Ceylon, while the true
Plovers fall into three groups : the mainly resident Lapwings,
with broad wings and a flappmg flight ; the migratory Golden
Plover and its allies, with a speckled upper plumage ; and the
smaller Sand Plovers, of which some species migrate, while
others remain with us all the year.

Ten members of the family come on to the Ceylon list.
The four small Sand Plovers are all referable to the genus
jEgialitis, the remaining six species are divided among as
many genera.

Rough Key to Ceylon Charadnines.

I. — Bill straight, short, and conical, no sw^elling on tip.

{a) Size small ; length 8'o inches.

Slre-psilaii interpret (the Turnstone).

II. — Bill pigeon-shaped, slightly swollen at tip,

A. — Wings broad ; upper plumage not speckled,

(а) A red wattle in front of eye.

Sarcogrammus indicus (Ped-Avattled Lap-
wing).

(б) A yellow wattle in front of eye.

Sarciophoru^s malahorkus (Yellow -wattled
Lapwing).

(c) No w'attle,

Chetinsia gregaria (Sociable Lapwing).

B. — Upper plumage speckled ; wings sharp and pointed.

(a) Xo hind toe ; length O‘o inches.

Chmadrins julvus (Eastern Golden Plover),

(ft) A small hind too ; length 12 inches.

Sguaiarola hdvetim (Gray Plover).

0. — ^Small forms under fl inches ; upper plumage not
speckled ; wings sharp and pointed.

(a) No white ring round neck.

(1) Wing o’o inches ; bill from gape 1 inch or

over.

Mgialilifi geoffroyi (Large Sand Plover).

(2) Wing 0 inches ; bill from gape *7o inch.

mongoUca (Lesser Sand Plover).

202

SPOLU ZBYLANICA.

( 6 ) A white ring round ireck.

(1) No dark band across breast.

^Egialitis alexandrina (Kentish Plover).

(2) A dark band across breast.

M. dubia (Little Kinged Plover).

Strepsilas ixterfres (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 223 ;

Legge, p. 900).

The. Tunistone.

(Plate 1.. tig. 5.)

Description . -\\iniGr : Top and sides of head brown whn
darker streaks ; upper back, scapulars, tertiaries, and wing
coverts dark brown with slightly paler edges, some erf the
under scapulars being partly or wholly white ; lower back,
rump, and longer tail coverts while; shorter tail coverts
dark brown ; wing quills blackish -brown with \vhito shafts, and
some white on the inner webs ; some of tho later secondaries
almost or w^holly white. Tail white at the base, the outer half
brown with white edges to all but the central'pair of feathers ;
the outer pair of feathers almost wholly white. Foreneck
and sides of breast brown ; the rest of the lower parts with
wing lining white.

Summer : Head, clun, and throat w^hite, mth black streaks
on the crown ; a black band from eye to eye across the fore-
head and a black patch below tho eye. The back, scapulais,
tertiaries, and wing coverts are mingled black and eheetmit.
A partial collar on the side of the neck,- Lho foreneck, breast,
and sides are black ; remainder of lower parts white.

Bill black ; iris brown , logs and feet orange-red ; claws
blackish.

Length 8*0 ; wing B ’2 ; tail 2*5 ; tarsus 1 ; bill from gape 1.

Distribution. — A migrant during the north-east monsoon,
fairly common on the coast from .Jadna to Mannar ; rarer on
the east coast, but mot with as far south as Hambantota ;
a mere straggler to the west coast south of Puttalam.

Of almost world-wide distribution, breeding in high northern
latitudes and wintering in the south ; not, as a rule, found
aw’ay from the coast.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 203

Hahiis . — Found on sandy flats by the soa or round lagoons,
hunting underneath stones and shells for insects, and generally
going about in snvill parties. By the time the birds leave
the Island, about the end of April, many have almost
completely assumed summer plumage.

Sarcoorammus indicus {Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 224),
Lobivanellus indicus (Legge, p, 962).

The. Red,~iixittled Lapwimj {J)id-he-do~it).

Description . — General colour above light brown, slightly
glossed with bronze-green and lilac -red, the latter colour
strongest on the wing coverts. Head, neck, and upper breast
black with a broad white band running from the eye down
the side of the neck to join the white plumage of the lower
parts, sides, and flanks. Primary coverts and wing quills
black with a white bar across the wing formed by the tips of
the greater secondary coverts and the bases of the secondary
quills, one or two of the later secondaries being entirely white.
Pump and upper tail coverts white. Tail white, the central
feathers with the outer half browui, and all the feathers with
a broad black cross-band near the tip.

Young birds are brown, not black, on the crown and
upper breast, and grayish -white on the sides of the face and
throat.

Bill red at the base, black at the tip ; eyelids and wattle
lake-red ; iris reddish-brown ; legs yellow.

Length 13; wing 8‘o; tail 4*2o; tarsus 3; bill from
gape 1-4.

Distribution . — Abundant all over the low-country, except
in very dry districts, where its place is largely taken by the
next species. Not found in Burma or Upper Assam, but
ranges through the rest of India westwards to Sou them Persia
and Arabia.

Habits . — Common on the open ground rouiid every village
lank, about the ec^es of paddy fields, and on grassy land near
water. Its cry of Did-he-do-it must bo familiar to every one,
Generally seen in pairs,

5

6(9)16

204

SPOLU 2EYLANICA.

Breeds during dry weather from April till about August,
laying four eggs on the bare ground. Their colour is yellowish-
stone with blotches of deep brown or black, and under markings
of paler purple -gray. Average size 1 • 68 by 1 ' 20,

Sarciophortjs malabaricus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 226).

Lobipluvia malabarica (Legge, p. 966).

The Yellow-waUJed Lapwing,

Description , — General colour of upper parts, with sides of
head, neck all round, and upper breast, light brown ; crown
and nape black bordered below by a white stripe round the
nape from oyo to eye. Ghin black ; lower parts from breast
downwards, with the sides, flanks, and wing lining, white.
Quills and primary coverts of wing blackish-brown ; the
primaries white on the inner web near the base ; outer sec-
ondaries white at the base, the white increasing towards the
later secondaries, ■which arc wholly white ; secondary coverts
tipped white. Tail white ; the middle feathers brown on the
outer half ; the whole crossed by a black band tow’ards the
tip, the band being broad in the middle, and tending to
disappear on the outer feathers.

Young birds have paler bauds on the brow^n upper parts
and, at first, no black on the head, which becomes more and
more mottled with black as maturity approaches.

Bill yellow' at base, black at tip ; eyelid and wattle lemon-
yellow ; iris silver -gray or light yellow ; logs yellow.

Length 10 ’ 5 ; wing 7 ' ; tail 3 ; tarsus 2 ' 4 ; bill from
gape 1’25.

Disiribuiion , — Fairly plentiful in the dry coast zone from
Jaffna to Mannar ; rare on the east, but commoner round
Hambantota. Ilesident on dry plains throughout India,
except in the Western Punjab ; unknown in Burma.

Essentially a bird of dry sandy wastes and parched
fields, In Ceylon it never goes far inland. The cry is a
plaintive “ pee-wdt.’’ It breeds in June and July, laying on
the bare ground four pyriform eggs of buff or pale stone colour
blotched with dark brown and pale inky-purple. They are
considerably smaller than those of the last species, averaging
1-45 by 1-07.

CEYLOJf BAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 205

Chettusia gbegaria (Blanford, Vol IV., p. 231 :
not in Legge).

The Sodahh Lapwing.

(Plate I., fig. 6.)

Description. — General tone of upper plumage light ashy-
brown, darker on the wing coverts and on centre of lower back.
Crowm and nape black ; forehead and a stripe running over the
eye round the nape white ; below this a black stripe passes
through the eye to the ear coverts. Primary coverts and
primaries black ; a little white on the bases of all the quills and
on the inner border of the last primary ; secondaries and outer
part of the greater secondary coverts white. Chin white,
shading through buff on the throat and sides of the face into
ashy- brown on the neck and breast. Abdomen black with a
patch of chestnut behmd. Wing lining, flanks, vent, lower and
upper tail coverts, and greater part of tail white ; a black band
across the tail near the tip, broad in the centre and disappearing
on the outer feathers.

In immature birds the crown is dark brown often streaked
with black ; forehead and baud round the nape buff instead of
white. The brown of the upper plumage is darker, and the
feathers are edged with rufous buff ; breast mottled brown ;
remainder of louder parts white.

Bill, legs, and feet black; iris dark brown.

ijcngth 12 ; wing 8 ; tail 3'5 ; tarsus 2* 4 ; bill from gape 1*2.

Distribution. — A very rare winter visitor to Ceylon ; has
been obtained tw o or three times on the racecourse at Colombo.
A migrant, breeding in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and
wintering chiefly iji North Africa and North-west India.

Most Indian specimens are in immature plumage.

Habits. — Occurs bi small flocks, and is generally found in
open country.

Charadrius fulvus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 234:

Legge, p, 934).

The Eastern Golden Plover.

Description. — Winter : Upper plumage dark brown or
blackish, each feather with yellow spots, which are whitish
the wing coverts. The forehead and an indistinct streak

206

SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

above the eye fulvous or whitish ; sides of head and neck
fulvous with brown streaks. Primary coverts and wing quills
dark brown with indistinct w'hite edges on some feathers.
Tail dark brown mottled with yellow or whitish. Under part
sullied white or dull brown, darker and streaked with brown
on the breast. Wing lining and axillaries gray-brown.

Summer : All Icwer parts turn black, except the wing lining
and axillaries, which do not change. The brovm of the upper
plumage hecon\es darker, and the yellow spots brighter ; the
forehead and the .streak over the eye become pure white.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet leaden black.

Length 9*5; wing 6*5; tail 2’4; tarsus 1*7; bill from
gape 1 ' i .

Common in suitable places throughout the
low-country from end of August to end of April. A migrant,
breeding in Siberia and wintering over the whole of Southern
Asia and as far south as Australia.

Habits . — Generally found in flocks on bare fields, grassy
land round tanks, or sandy pastures near the coast. During
the wet weather the birds v'ander about a good deal. Some
specimens on their first arrival in the Island bear traces of the
summer plumage, and most birds before they leave have a
large amount of black on the breast.

Squatakola hklvetica (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 2116 ;

Ixiggo, p. 929).

The Gray Plover.

Description . — Winter : Dark brown above, with pale edgings
to the feathers. Forehead, loros, sides of head, and neck dirty
white streaked with brown. Wing coverts edged and notched
with pearly-white ; primary coverts and wing quills black-
brown, with some white on the webs and shafts... Upper tail
coverts and tail white with darker bars ; the barring more
marked on the tail. Lower parts white or whitish, streaked
with brown on the foreneck and breast.

Summer : The lower parts become black from the chin to
the upper abdomen ; lower abdomen, flanks, thighs, and low er
tail coverts pure white. The upper parts are brown-black
marked and barred with pure white.

CEYXOJI RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS, 207

Immature birds are spotted with golden buff above like a
Golden Plover.

Bill black ; iris dark hazel ; legs and feet gray-black.

Length 12 ; wing 8 ; tail 2*9; tarsus 1*8; bill from gape 1 ■ 3.

Distribution. — An occasional and irregular winter visitor,
specimens having been obtained at various points on the coast
from Jaffna to' Colombo. Breeds in the far north, wintering
chiefly near the sea in India and Burma.

Habits. — Generally found in small flocks freq[uenting sandy
beaches, tidal flats, and the shores of lagoons. In other
respects the habits are similar to those of the Golden Plover.

iEoiALiTis GEOFFROYi (Blanford, Vol IV., p. 237 ;

Legge, p. 939).

The Large Sand Plover.

Descriftion. — Winter : Upper pluipago brown, the feathers
with slightly paler edges and narrow darker shaft-stripes ; the
forehead and eyebrow white or whitish ; a dark brown band
from the lores passes under the eve to the ear coverts ; the
greater wing coverts with ^vhite tip.s ; the primary coverts and
wing quills brown, with a little white on the outer webs of the
inner primaries and on the tips and shafts of the secondaries.
The lateral tail coverts are edged with white ; the tail feathers
brown tipped with white, the outermost pair being almost
entirely white. The lower parts are white, with a more or
less perfect band of brown across the breast.

Summer ; The upper plujiiage turns paler brown with a
rufous tinge. The forehead is white below and black above ;
a broad black stripe runs from the bill through the lores to the
ear coverts ; the crown, sides of neck, hind neck, and a band
across the upper breast pale rufous.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet grayish-green, gray, or
yellowish-black. ^

length 8*5; wing 5*5; tail 2*2; tarsus 1 * o ; bill from gape 1*1.

Distribution. — A migrant found on the coasts of the dry
zone from Mannar round by Jaffna to Hambantota. Broods
in Japan and Eastern China, wintering on the shores of the
Indian Ocean from South Africa to Australia.

208

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

—Frequents the seashore, tidal flats, and the sandy
stretches round lagoons, often in company with the next
species. Some immature birds in winter plumage remain with
us throughout the year.

' ^GiAUTis MOJfGOLiCA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 238 ;

Legge, p. 943).

Tht Ltss^r Sand Plover.

(Plate II., fig. 7.)

Description . — Similar to the last species in either plumage,
but smaller and with a shorter bill.

. As a rule, in the winter plumage tire upper surface is darker
brown, and in summer the w^estern race which visits India has
the forehead wholly black or with only a little white. The
Chinese race has more white on the forehead and a brighter
pectoral gorget.

Bill, iris, and feet as in M. geoffroyi.

Length 7’5; wing 5; tail 2; tarsus 1'2; bill from
gape ‘75.

Distribution . — Plentiful all round the coast line of the dry
zone during the north-east monsoon.

Breeds in Central and Northern Asia and in Alaska ; winters
round the shores of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to
Queensland. Numbers of immature birds in winter plumage
remain with ns throughout the year.

Habits . — Like the last species, may be found on sandy or
muddy flats by the shore and round the margins oi lagoons,
often in large scattered flocks.

^lALiTis ALEXANDRiNA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 240).
AOgialitis cantiana (Legge, p. 947).

The Kentish Plover.

Descri'piion. — Winter : Upper plumage in general mud-
brown. Forehead, eyebrow, a ring round the neck, and ail
the lower parts, with the wing lining and axillaries, white ;

CETLON BAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 209

a brown patch on each side of the breast, extending sometlmea
nearly to the middle ; lores and a stripe through the eye and
round the nape a richer brown than on the back. Wing quills
blackish-brown, the inner primaries with a white patch on the
outer web, and the secondaries with white tips and borders.
The four central tail feathers are blackish -brown, the next
pair white on the tips and outer borders, the two outside pairs
entirely white.

Breeding plumage. Male : A broad black patch appears
above the white forehead ; remainder of crown and nape
tinged with rusty red. A band from the lores to the ear
coverts, and the patch on each side of the breast black.
Female : Lacks the black patches on the front of the crown,
while the loral band and breast patches are rusty brown
instead of black. The rufous tinge on the head is less pro-
nounced than in the male.

Young birds have paler edges to the feathers on the upper
parts.

Tropical birds are smaller than northern specimens.

Bill black ; iris browii ; legs and feet dusky gray or
blackish.

Ijongth 6’ 5; wing 4‘1; tail 1'9; tarsus 1; bill from
gape *7,

Disirilmtion . — Found all round the coast ; most plentiful in
the north and about Hamfxintota ; some birds are resident,
but their numbei^ are largely reinforced during the north-
east monsoon by migrants. Occurs throughout the Indian
Empire, chiefly near the sea. The species ranges through
Europe, Africa, most of Asia, and Australia, but many of
the birds which winter in warmer climates breed in the
north.

Ilahiis . — Mainly a bird of the sea coast, preferring sandy
shores rather than mud flats, Has been found breeding in
June and July on sandy wastes near Hambantota, but some
birds at the breeding seasn;i retire inland to nest round
Minneri and Kanthalai tanks. Ceylon birds appear to lay
only two or three eggs, which are stone-coloured with rather
scratchy black markings and a few pale gray -purple spots.
Average measurement 1' 18 by *87.

^10

8POLIA ZEYLANICA.

-iEoiALiTis BUBIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 241).

;Egiautis curonica (Legge, p. 952),

.^GiALiTis JBRDONi (Leggo, p. 956).

Tht Little Riiujed Phver,

Description. — Gonoral colour above brown, darkest on the
wings and tail, the wing quills and the tip of the tail being
almost black. The forehead, the fore part^of the crown, and
the sides of the head from the bill to the ear coverts are black,
with a white band across the forehead from eye to eye, and a
white border behind the black of the crown and ear coverts.
The chin, throat, and a collar all round The neck are white ;
behind this is a collar of black, broadest on the breast. The
remainder of the lower parts and the wing lining are white.
The later prini,aries and the secondaries are tipped with
white, the white increasmg on the later .secondaries ; the two
outer tail feathers are almost entirely white, the renraining
feathers, with the exception of the central pair, tipped with
white.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; eyelid yellowish ; legs and
feet dusky yellow.

Length 7 ; wing 4*5; tail 2 ■ 5 ; tarsus 1 ; bill from gape ' G.

Note. — By many Indian ornithologists this species is divided
into two ; a larger migrant form (/E. curoriica of Legge) and
a smaller resident species [Jt). jerdoni of the same author).
Dr. Sharpe, in the British Museum Catalogue, unites the two
forms, and is followed by Blanford. The matter is still a
moot point I believe. The resident form is noticeably
smaller, with a wing measurement of 4*0, has more yellow at
the base of the bill, and a broader naked yellow ring round
the eye.

Distribution . migrant race visits the coast in the north
of the Island during the north-east rhonsoon, is a winter
migrant to the whole of the Indian Empire, and occurs all
over Europe, Asia, and North Africa, The resident form is
found sparingly round Kanthalai and Minneri tanks, and on
the sand banks in the lower reaches of the Mahaweli-ganga
and its larger tributaries. I have also seen it near Hamban-
tota.

CJETLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 211

Habits, — Sometimes seen away from water in dry or sandy
fields, but generally found on sandy margins of large tanks or
in river beds. With us migrant birds appear to frequent
sandy wastes near the coast. Resident birds appear to nest
about June, the eggs being slightly smaller than those of
M. alexandrina^ averaging about 1 ■ 14 by *84.

Sub -family Haematopodivss.

Stilts, Oyster -catchers, and Avoceis,

A group consisting of three widely- spread genera : Hasma-
topus (the Oyster-catchers) ; Hiwantopus (the Stilts) ; and
Rtcurvirostra (the Avocets), together with one curious central
Asian bird Ihidorhyncus (the Ibis Bill). The last-named
genus does not occur in Ceylon ; in each of the other genera
we have a single species, All three are birds of medium size
found by the water’s edge, and feeding on molluscs, Crustacea,
worms, &c. Two of them are rare winter visitors to our shores,
the other — the Black -winged Stilt — is fairly common and
largely resident. All of them have the front toes webbed to
a certain extent, a pied plumage, long pointed wings, and a
long bill. The shape of the bill, however, differs greath^
affordijig an easy means whereby the three forms may bo
distinguished.

Rough Key to Ceylon Hsernatopodinae.

A. — No hind toe ; bill straight, strong, chisel -tipped, and

longer than tarsus.

Hasmatopus ostralegus (the Oyster-catcher).

B. — No Kind too ; bill straight, slender, pointed, and shorter

than tarsus.

Himantopus Candidas (the Black-winged Stilt).

C. — A small hind too ; bill curving upwards, thin, flexible,

and pointed.

Recurvirostra avocetta (the Avocet).

fi

6(9)16

212

SPOUA ZEYLANICA,

H^atopus osTRALiXius (Blaiiford, Vol. IV., p. 245 ;

Legge, p. 987).

The Oyster -catcher .

Descrifiion , — Head and neck, upper back, scapulars, and
tertiaries black ; lower back, rump, tail coverts, and under
plumage from the lower neck white. The primary coverts
and primary quills are black, with some white on the latter ;
there is also some white on the edge of the wing, and a white
wing band formed by the tips of the median coverts, the outer
secondary coverts, aiid the inner secondary quills. The tail
is white with a broad black band at the tip-.

Young birds are browner, and have a patch of white on the
throat.

Bill orange-red at the base, yellower and more dusky at the
tip ; iris red, orange, or browny-red ; legs and feet brownish-
purple, the toes slightly webbetl at the base, and with broad
soles.

Length lb ; wing 10 ; tail 4 ; tarsus 2 ■ 1 ; bill from gape 3
to 3 ’ 20 .

Disinhuiion. — A rare and occasional visitor during the
north-east monsoon to the coast from Jaffna to Puttalam,
Found during the winter on the coasts of India and Burma,
but not common, except ni the north-west, Found by the
sea in most parts of Europe and Asia, breeding in the north
and wintering in the south,

Habits. — Usually seen in small troops, which keep largely
to the shore, feeding between high and low water marks on
shellfish, &c. Especially fond of rocks uncovered by the tide.
A very wary bird.

Himantopu.s CANDTDUa (Blanford, Vol, IV., p, 247 ;

Legge, p. 919).

The Black-winged Stilt.

(Plate U., fig. 8.)

Descriylion . — Adult male : Head, neck, lower parts, lower
back, and rump white, the crown and nape often being tingo<l
with gray. The upper part of the back, the wing coverts,
and wings, together with the wing lining, glossy green-black ;

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 213

tail white or grayish. Females have the black of the upper
parts replaced by brown, except on the wing quills.

Youi^ birds are blackish on the crow'n and grayer on the
hind neck. Probably only quite old birds have the head pure
white.

Yearling birds are still lighter brown on the back, with pale
edges to the feathers ; the head and hind neck are gray-brow'n.

Bill black ; iris red ; legs and feet lake-red or pinkish-red
with black claw's.

Length 15 ; wing 9*25 ; tail 3-25 ; tarsus 5*0 ; bill from
gape 2 ■ 85.

Distrihntion . — Fairly common in the north of the Island
and down the oast coast as far as Hambantota, Occurs
throughout India and Burma, extending tlirough Southern
Europe, ail Africa, and Southern Asia.

Habits of our birds appear to be resident. During

the wet season they may be seen far inland at the ec^es of
tanks in the Northern and North-Central Provinces. They
breed from April to June in fairly large colonies round certain
lagoons all down the east coast aaid by a fe^v tanks, such as
Minneri and Kanthalai. The Jiest is the usual depression in
the ground near the w ater’s edge ; it is sometimes h’ned with a
few rushes, a little grass, or 'with waterweeds. The eggs, three
or four in number, are drab or stone -colon red blotched with
black. They much resemble the f^s of the Red-wattled
Lapwing. Average size 1 ' 64 by 1 ■ 19.

Keourvi ROSTRA AVOCETTA (Blauford, V^ol. IV., p. 248 ;

Legge, p. 925).

The Avocet.

Description. — G^ieral colour white, with the following parts
brown in winter and black in summer : — The forehead, crown,
nape, hind neck, the upper part of the mantle, including the
shorter scapulars, together with a band on the wing formed
l^y the median coverts, the greats part of the primary quills,
and aome of the tertiaries. In the x^inter the hind neck is
white, a»d the tail tinged with browTiish-gray.

Bill black ; iris reddish -browm ; legs and feet bluish-gray.

214

SPOLIA ZEYLANtCA.

Length 18 ; wing 9 ; tail 3*5 ; tarsus 3’3 ; bill from gape
3-25.

Distribution . — A very rare straggler in winter has been
obtained near Jaffna, and I believe that 1 once saw one near
Hambantota. A winter visitor to India, commoner in the
north, and unknown in Burma. Found all over temperate
Europe, Africa, Northern and South-western Asia, breeding in
the north of its range.

Habits . — Generally found about mud flats and sand banks,
in estuaries, or by the shores of salt lagoons.

Sub -family Totaninse.

(hirhws, Smidpipers, and Stints.

A large sub -family, all the members of which are migrants,
\Gth a distinct summer and winter dress, visiting us in the
winter months and breeding mainly in the far north. In
som,e species. h<»wever, more or less numerous immature
specimens loiter, i.e., do not go north to breed, but remain in
the Island during the summer nronths in a bachelor state
and winter dress.

The plumage is generally some shade of gray or brown
above ; paler and often white underneath ; never pied, but
often streaked.

The bill is slender, usually long, and provided with well-
developed nerves, giving the organ a keen sense of touch — a
necessity for birds wlxich obtain their food mainly by probing
in mud and soft sand in search of worms or other similar small
forms of life. This is especially the case with the Stints.

N(* less than seventeen species are found in Ceylon, distri-
buted among seven genera . These genera fall into two groups :
those which have some trace of webbing at the base of the
front toes and those which have none. To the former category
belong five genera. The first of these, Numenius (the Curlews),
fairly large birds with long curving sickle-shaped hills, gives
US two species. Totanus (the Sandpipers) is well represented
in Ceylon by seven species, ^ the smaller of which are so familiar
to snipe shooters under the name of Snippets. The genus
Limosa (Godwits), finds its way into the (Teylon list owing

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS. AND TERNS. 2]0

to stray specimens of one species having been recorded from
the north of the Island. The remaining genera — Terekia
(Avocet Sandpiper) and Pavoncella (Ruff and Reeve) — are
each confined to a single species, of which rare stragglers have
been obtained within our limits.

The two genera devoid of webbing between the toes are :
First, Tringa (the Stints), out of which five species visit us.
These are all small birds about the size of a sparrow. Three
of them swarm about the flat shores of our lagoons, but two
are excessively rare, Second, Calidris (the Sandorling), another
single species, placed in a separate genus by reason of its
having no hind toe, and only once recorded from Ceylon.

Povtjgh Key to Ceyhn Totaninas.

I. — Toes partially webbed.

A. — Bill curved downwards, long ; whig over 9 inches.

Genus Numenius,

(а) Crown streaked, wing about 1 1 ■"».

Numenius arqmius (Curlew).

(б) Crown brown with a pale broken band down

centre, wing about 9 '5.

Numeniiu<! phaeopus (Whimbrel).

B. — Bill straight, long, and with a blunt point ; wing 7*5

or over. Genus Limosa,

{a) Tail half white, half black.

Limosa belgica (Black-tailed Godwit).

C. — Bill curv^ed upwards, twice as long as tarsus, which is

short. Genus Terekia.

Terekia cinerea (Avocet Sandpiper).

D. — Bill about same length as tarsus, slender, straight

(except in one species), the tip of upper mandible
hard and slightly bent down. Genus Totanus.

{a) Small forms, whig not over 5 inches, legs greenish.

(1) Rump not white.

Totanus hypoU'ucus (Common Sandpiper),

(2) Rump white.

Totanus glareola (Wood S^i-ndpiper),

216

SPOLIA ZETLANICA.

(6) Medium forms, wing 5 to 6 inches, legs olive or
gre^.

(1) Lower back brown.

Totanus ochropus (Green Sandpiper),

(2) Lower back white.

Totanus stagmtilis (Little Greenshank).

(c) Wing over 6 inches, legs red, rump white.

(1) Secondary quills white.

Totanus calidris (Redshank).

(2) Secondary quills brownish barred with

white.

Totanus fuscus (Spotted Redshank).

id) Wing over 6 inches, rump white, bill slightly
curved up, legs greenish.

Totanus glottis (Greenshank).

E, — Wing 6 inches or over, bill noticeably shorter than
tarsus, rump and lower back brown. Genus Pawn-
cella.

Pavoncella pugnax (Ruff and Reeve).

11. — No trace of web between toes.

A. — No hind toe. Genus Calidris.

(a) Plumage pale, length 7’5 inches.

Calidris arenaria (Sanderiing).

B. — A hind toe. (Jeylon forms all under 9 inches in length.

Bill slender.. Genus Tringa.

(a) Bill straight ; shafts of all primaries partly white*
(1) Tarsus gray.

Tringa minuta (Little Stint).

{b) Bill straight ; shafts of all primaries, except first,
brown.

( 1 ) Tail all browT:i ; inid toe and claw 0 * 9 inch.
Tringa suhminuta (Long -toed Stint).

(2) Outer t?wl feathers white ; mid toe and

claw 0*75 inch.

Tringa temnUncki (Temminck’s Stint).

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 2l7

(c) Bill curved downwards towards tip.

(1) Upper tail coverts chiefly white.

Tringa suharquaia (Curlew Stint).

(2) Upper tail coverts blackish -brown.

Tringa platyrhyncha (Broad-billed Stint).

Numbjvius arquata (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 252).

Numemus lineatus (Legge, p. 906).

The. Curlev).

(Plate II,, fig. 9.)

Dtscriplion . — General colour of upper part s light brown, the
feathers with darker shaft -stripes, which are broader on the
back than on the head and neck ; some of the larger scapulars
■with dark arrowhead bars ; wing coverts with paler edges to
the feathers ; primary coverts and primaries browm-black
with white tips, except on the outer primaries ; white mottling
on the inner web of the outer and on both webs of the inner
primaries ; secondaries brown barred with white ; tertiaries
ash-brown with dark brown shaft-stripes and crossbars.
Lower back and rump white, the middle feathers with a black
shaft-stripe expanding on the tip into a broad spot. Upper
tail coverts white with dark spots ; tail evshy-brown with
dark crossbars. Chin and throat w^hitish ; the foreneck
reddish-buff or brownish, and the remainder of the lower parts
white ; the feathers on the neck, breast, and flanks with dark
shaft-stripes.

In summer the whole piu7n,age is darker ; the shaft-stripes
are everywhere broader, and extend further down on the
abdomen.

Bill dark brown or blackish, the lower mandible being
He.shy-wtoe near the base ; iris browji ; legs and feet blue-
gray,

Length about 23; wing 11*5; tail 4*5; tarsus 3*4; bill
from gape 5 to fl or over.

The birds vary considerably in size, and females are larger
than males.

218

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution . — Fairly common on th.e north coast during
the north-east monsoon, rarer on the east coast, and a mere
straggler in the south and west. A winter visitor to the
Indian Empire. The species breeds in temperate zone of the
Old World, wintering in Africa and Southern Asia,

Habits . — Frequents shallow tidal flats, low shores round
lagoons, or marshy land near the coast. In the north of the
Island it may be seen in large flocks on favourite feeding
grounds.

Numenius pu/EOpus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 253 ;

Loggc, p. 910).

The Whmhrel.

Description . — Upper parts in general brown with paler
edges to the feathers, most noticeable on the wing coverts.
Forehead and crown darker with an indistinct paler line down
the centre ; a pale band with narrow dark streaks from base
of bill over the eye to the nape ; lores and oar coverts dark
browm. Primary coverts and primaries blackish-brown, tipped,
except on the outer primaries, with w'hite ; inner webs of all
quills and both w'ebs of inner quills notched with white.
Lower back and rump wlute with brown drops. Upper tail
covei.ts barred brown and whitish ; tail ashy-biown with
darker crossbars. Chin and throat white ; foreneck and
breast whitish with darker shaft-stripes ; remainder of lower
parts white, barred with brown on the Hanks, wing lining,
axillaries, and lower tail coverts.

In winter the barrings and streaks on the lower back and
under parts are less distinct than in summer.

Bill black, the under mandible much paler near the base ;
iris dark brown ; legs and feet blue-gray.

length 17; wing 9' 5; tail 3 ’75; tarsus 2*3; bill
3*25.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Distribution . — Occurs during the north-east monsoon at
various places round the coast. A winter visitor to the Indian
coasts. Breeds in Europe and Northern Asia, extending in
winter from North Africa to Australia.

CBTLON RAILS, WADERS, OT7LLS, AND TERNS. 219

Habits. — Much the same as those of the last species, but
this bird is not often seen in flocks, and is more fond of rocky
shores. Immature specimens sometimes loiter, as I once
shot one near Hamhantota in July.

Limosa belgica (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 254).

Limosa iEGOCEPHALA (Legge, p. 832).

■ The HlacJc-iailed, Godmt.

Description. — Winter : General colour above ashy-brown,
paler on the head and nock, and darkening towards the rump,
which is blackish-browTi. There is an indistinct whitish
eyebrow and a whitish spot under the eye ; a wliite bajid along
the tips of the greater wing coverts ; primar}^ coverts and
primaries blackish-brown, with some white on the inner webs
of all and on the outer webs of the inner primaries ; secondaries
white with a broad black tip, v^tuch diminishes on the inner
feathers, the outer webs of the inner secondaries being entirely
white. Upper tail coverts and base of tail white ; the outer
half of the tail blackish, but lighter at the tip. Chin, throat,
and under parts whitish, darkening on the foreneck and
breast to grayish -brown.

Summer : Head, neck, breast, and back rufous, streaked
with black on the crown and nape, mottled with black on the
back, and barred with dusky black on the breast ; the bars
are continued on the abdomen and sides of the body.

Bill fleshy-red, dusky at the tip ; iris dark brown ; legs and
feet blackish.

Length about 17-5; wing 8-5 ; tail 3; tarsus 3 ; bill 3 to 4 '8.

Specimens vary greatly in size and iji length of bill, females
are generally larger than males.

Distribution. — A pair was once obtained at Point Pedro.
Common in Northern India in winter ; rare in Burma, Assam,
and iSouthem India. Breeds in temperate Europe and Asia,
wintering from Southern Europe and North Africa eastwards
to Australia.

Habits. — May be looked for on the tidal flats along the north
coast, as possibly a few stragglers now and then visit the
Island during the winter months. In India it is found inland
on the edges of tanks and swamps.

7

6(9)16

220

SPOLTA ZBYLANICA,

Teeekia cineeea (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 258 ;

Leggo, p. 836).

Tht Avocet Sandpiper.

Description . — Winter : Upper parts, including tail, light
ashy -brown, with darker shaft-stripes ; forehead and eyebrow
whitish ; lores brownish. There is an indefinite dark brown
band along the lesser wing coverts ; outer wing coverts and
primaries dusky bro\Mi ; secondaries brown edged with white ;
outer tail feathers mottled with white. Lower parts white ;
the foreneck and sides of the breast more or less streaked and
washed wdth gray.

Summer ; The black shaft-stripes are strongly developed
on the scapulars, and in general are more conspicuous ; the
sides of the head, the neck, and breast are more noticeably
streaked with a shade of browui.

Bill blackish-brown ; iris brown ; legs and feet orange-
yellow.

Length 9*5; wing 5*1; tail 2*2; tarsus 1*1; bill fro in gape 2 ,

Distribution . — A rare straggler recorded from the coast
in the Mannar District and Southern Province. Breeds in
North-eastern Europe and Northern Siberia, wintering in
East Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia. Occurs locally on
the coasts of the whole Indian Empire.

Habits. A curious bird, easily distinguished by its pale
plumage, long bill curving upwards, relatively short legs,
and orange feet. It generally associate.s in small troops of
five or six, and may be looked for on tidal flats and muddy
shores of lagoons.

Totanus hypoleucus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 260).
Trixgoidbs hypoleucus (Legge, p. 867).

The Common Sandpiper.

Description . — Upper parts, including head and tail, slightly
glossy olive-brown, with darker shaft-stripes to the feathers ;
scapulars, tertiaries, wing coverts, and middle tail feathers
with a darker border near the tip, which is edged with white.
Primary coverts and primaries dark brown, the coverts tippe^J

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 221

with white ; part of the inner web of all primaries, except the
first, white ; secondaries white with a broad outer dusky band,
which gradually disappears on the inner feathers. Outer
tail feathers barred brown and white. There is an indistinct
white eyebrow ; the cheeks and sides of the neck and breast
are streaked grayish-brown ; lower parts whitish with some
darker shaft-stroaks on the forencck.

In summer the upper parts lose the olive tinge and become
darker with bolder shaft-stripes and crossbars. The foreneck
and breast are more distinctly streaked with brown.

Bill deep brown above, tinged with yellow at the base ;
iris brown ; legs grayish -green.

Length 8; wing 4-25; tail 2 ‘25; tarsus '95; bill from
gape 1*1.

Distributim . — Common throughout the low -country during
the north-east monsoon, occasionally found as high up as
Nuwara Eliya.

Common throughout India in the winter, but less abundant
in Northern India than T. ockropus breeds in the temperate
regions of the Old World, migrating in the winter as far as
South Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia.

Habits . — Usually solitary or found in pairs, and fonder of
the seashore, the gravelly borders of tanks, and the sides of
streams than of paddy fields and swamps. One of our earliest
migrants, many birds arriving during August. It often
perches on fences or low boughs near the water.

Totanus glareola (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 261 ;

Legge, p. 857).

The Wood Sandpiper.

(Plate II., fig. 10.)

Description. — Winter ; Upper parts bronze-brown ; the
crown and hind neck with fault paler edges to the feathers ;
a whitish streak from the bill to above the eye. On the back,
scapulars, wing coverts, rump, and tertiaries the feathers have
more pronounced white edges and spot tings of w^hite and
deep brown. The upper tail coverts are white, the middle tail
feathers light brown barrod with dark brown ; the remainder

222

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

of the tail barred brown and white, the brown disappearing on
the outside feathers . The lesser wing coverts, primary coverts,
and wing quills dark brown ; the secondaries and later
primaries tipped with white. Foreneck and upper breast
light ashy with darker brown streaks ; rest of, lower parts
white with a few black markings on the lower tail coverts.

Summer : The upper plumage is more distinctly variegated
dusky brovm and white ; the head and neck are streaked with
white ; the breast with distinct dark spots.

Bill greenish at the base, blackish at the tip ; iris deep
brown ; legs yellowish-olive.

Length 8*5; wing 4*8; tail 2 ; tarsus 1 • 5 ; bill from gape
1*3.

Distribtition . — Abundant all over the low -country ; common
throughout the Indian Fmpire ; breeds in Europe and
Northern Asia, wintering from Africa eastwards to Southern
Asia and Australia.

Habits . — The species is found in swarms all over the paddy
fields and marshes of the low -country from September to
April. It arrives earlier than the Snipe and leaves a little
later, collecting in large flocks before departure. It is also
fairly common on salt marshes, tidal flats, and the low shores
round lagoons. This and the next species but one, i.e., T.
fitafjmtilis^ are the birds usually known to vSnipo shooters as
Snippets.

Totanus ochropus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 262 ;

Lcggo, p. 862).

The Green Sandpiper.

Description . — Winter : Upper siirface brown with a tinge
of olive ; paler on head and neck ; the feathers of the scapu-
lars, wing coverts, and tertiaries edged with alternating pale
and dark spots. The outer wing coverts, the prinraries, and
secondaries unrelieved dark brown ; tail white barred with
brownish-black, the bars disappearing towards the outside
feathers ; upper tail coverts white. There is an indistinct
white streak on the eyebrow ; the chin and throat are whitish ;
the sides of the head and of the neck with the upper breast

CEYLON BAILS, WADERS, HULLS, AND TERNS,

223

streaked with brown . Remainder of lowm* parts white ; the
axillaries and wing lining dusky brown barred with white.

Summer ; The crown and hind neck are much streaked
with white ; the back is spotteni with wdute, and the brown
streaks on the sides of head and nock and on the upper breast
aro broader and more conspicuous.

Bill deep brown, greenish round the nostrils and at the
base of the lower mandible ; iris llazel-brow^I ; legs and feet
dmgy green, grayish, or bluish.

Length 9' 5; wing 5*5 ; tail 2' 5; tarsus I ‘3; bill from
gape 1*5.

Distribution . beds of rivers in the northern half of
the Island ; also on streaius up-country. Common in Northern
India, rarer in Burma and Southern India, Occurs through-
out the Old World, breeding in the north and wintering in the
south.

Habits . — Not a very common bird with us, and seldom seen
away from the beds of streams, though in Northern India it
frec[uents marshes or even paddy fields. It is a w^ary bird,
with a much louder note than that of the last species. About
our earliest migrant, arriving in August and not leaving till
May.

Totanus STAGNATiLis (Blanford, Vol, IV,, p. 263 ;

Legge, p. 844).

Tht Marsh Sandpifcr ; Link Greenskank.

Description . — Winter : General colour above ashy- brown,
the feathers with paler edges and inconspicuous darker shaft-
stripes. The wing coverts and primaries aro dark browin ;
greater coverts, later primaries, and seconditries edged with
white, lewder back and rump white ; upper tail coverts white,
sometimes barred with brown ; tail white irregularly barred
with brown, the central feathers and the outer w*ebs of the rest
tinged with ashy-brown. The forehead, loros, cheeks, and
under parts white, with brown streaks on the sides of the
upper breast, nock, and of the head behind the eye.

Summer : The general tone of the upper plumage is ashy-
gray tinged with brown ; there are conspicuous black angular

224

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

patches on the feathers of the back and black arrowheads on
the tertiaries. The foroneck and upper breast are marked with
brown spots, which turn to irregular bars on the sides of the
body.

Bill dark broAvn, the basal portion of lower mandible
greenish ; iris hazel -brown ; legs and feet bluish-green or
yellowish.

Length 10; wing 5*5; tail 2*3; tarsus 2*15; bill from
gape 1 ’7.

Distribution . — Extremely common, mainly near the coast
in the north and east of the Island. Occurs only locally in
India and Burma, and generally inland. Its summer haunts
lie further south than those of most Sandpipers, extending
from South-east France, through Central Asia, to Southern
Siberia. It winters in Africa and Southern Asia as far east-
wards as the Malay Archipelago.

Habits . — In Ceylon this species n^ay be found in numbers by
every lagoon, salt marsh, and tidal flat along the coast of the
dry zone. It also frequents paddy helds in districts near the
seca, and occurs inland round such tanks as Kanthalai. Some
immature birds remain with us throughout the year.

Totanus caltdris (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 264 ;

Legge, p. 852).

The Redshank.

Description . — Winter ; Upper plumage light ashy-brown :
the wing coverts with white edges and irregular dark bars ; the
lower back and rump white ; upper tail coverts and tail white
barred with brown, the central feathers tinged with ashy-
brown towards the tip. The primary coverts and primaries
are dark brown ; the inner margins of the primaries are
mottled with white ; the tips and the inner webs of the later
primaries and the exposed portion of all the secondaries are
white, showing a large clear white area on the expanded wing.
Forehead and lores brown ; a white streak from the bill to the
eyebrow ; sides of face, foreneck, and upper breast white
streaked with brown ; remainder of lower parts white with a
few streaks on the flanks and lower tail coverts.

CEYLON BAILS, WADBBS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 226

Summer : Upper plumage brown, tinged in parts with
rufous and streaked with dark brown ; scapulars and tertiaries
with dark shaft-stripes and herring-bone bars. The feathers
of the lower plumage, except on the abdomen, are boldly
streaked and spotted in the centre with blackish-brown.

Young birds resemble adults in winter plumage, but are
more marked on the upper parts, where the feathers have
reddish-brown edges ; the wing coverts and tertiaries are
marked with fulvous ; the foreneck, breast, and flajiks are
streakily marked with ashy-brown.

Bill black, reddish at the base ; iris brown ; legs and feet
orange-red.

Length 1 1 ; wing G ' 2o ; tail 2*5; tarsus 1*9; bill from
gape 1*9.

Distribution . — Moderately common on the coast from Man-
nar round by Jaffna to Itambantota. Rare on the west coast.
Scattered through India and Burma in suitable localities ;
found over most of Europe, Africa, and Asia, breeding ui the
temperate zone and wintering further south.

Habits , — Generally seen in small troops on the muddy
shores of estuaries or lagoons near the cover of bushes or
mangroves. A very siiy bird with a loud call and a swift
twisting flight, especially w'hen fired at.

Totanus fuscus (Bianford, Vol. IV., p. 265 ;

Lcgge, p. «48).

The. Shotted Redshank.

Description . — Winter : Upper plumage ashy gray-brown ;
lower back and rump wliite ; upper tail coverts barred black
and white ; tail ashy-brown wfith broken bars of dark brown
and white on the edges . Scapulars, wing coverts, and tertiaries
dusky, edged and notched with white, the tertiaries with
imperfect black bars. Primary coverts and primaries dark
firown, the inner borders of primaries mottled with white,
the later primaries and secondaries brownish, barred and
tipped with white. Lores ashy- brown, eyebrow white ;
rides of face, foreneck, and upper breast indistinctly streaked

228

SFOLIA zeylanica.

to correspond. Females in summer have the feathers of the
upper plumage velvet black, fringed with sandy-buff ; the
tortiaries are boldly marked with buff and black in irregular
bars ; the foreneck and breast are mottled with black.

Young birds are mostly ashy-gray, tinged with buff on the
lower parts, while the tertiaries are not barred ; otherwise they
resemble females in summer.

Bill dark brown, paler at the gape ; iris brown ; legs and
feet fleshy -yellow to yellowish -brown.

Males : length 1 2 ; ^nng 7*3; tail 2*75; tarsus 1*9; bill 1*5.
Females are smaller : length 10 ; wing 6.

Didribuiion. — ^Ono specimen was obtained forty years ago
in the Hambantota District, and in February, 1914, I saw
three birds near Hambantota and secured one for the Museum.
Common in Northern India during the winter. Rare in
Burma and the south. Breeds in temperate Europe and Asia,
migrating to Africa and Southern Asia as far east as India.

Habits. —Shonld be looked for round unfrequented lagoons
from November to March. It may occasionally visit us and
pass unnoticed among the swarms of other waders. It can
be distinguished from Sandpipers of the same size by its dark
lower back and rump.

Calidris AREN aria (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 270 ;

Legge, p. 1220).

The Sanderling.

Descriptmi . — Winter : Upper parts light gray tinged with
brown, each feather with darker shaft-stripes and paler edges.
Forehead, face, and lower parts white. The wing coverts and
quills are blackish -brown ; across the wing there is a white
band formed by the tips of the greater coverts. The hm\\
portion of the inner web of all the quills and the same part of
the outer web of the later primaries is white ; quill shafts
white. The hind neck is lighter and the rump darker than
the back. The rump is white at the sides ; the central tail
feathers are ashy-brown, black at the tip with white shafts and
margins ; the rest of the tail feathers are grayish-brown edge<l
with white and with some white on the inner webs.

CEYLON K.AILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TEENS. 229

Summer ; The upper parts are rufous cinnamon with biack
centres and pale ashy edges to the feathers. The foreneck
and breast are rufous mottled with black. Remainder of
lower parts white. ■

Young birds are blackish, with pale gray edges to the feathers
of the crown and upper back. The scapulars, wing coverts,
and tertiaries are much mottled with white ; the lower parts
are white. >

Bill black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet black, there is
no hind toe.

Length 7' 5; wing 4 '75; tail 2 ; tarsus 1; bill from
gape 1 ■ 1 .

Visiribution . — A specimen w^as once obtained from d flock
on an islet in Negombo lagoon. This bird is found on the
coast of India, but is rare, except in Sind and Baluchistan.
It occurs nearly all over the world, breeding in arctic regions
aiid migrating south in winter.

Habits , — Usually met with in small flocks round flat shores,
often in company with other waders, especially Sand Plovers
mid Stints.

Tkinga minuta (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 273 ;

Legge, p. 884).

The Little Stint,

I)e,scription . — Winter ; Upper plumage brow^n tinged with
gray, each feather with broad black shaft-stripes ; the fore-
head, eyebrow, lower cheeks, and under parts white ; the sides
of the neck and of the breast brownish with darker streak;^,
'fhe wing coverts and tertiaries are darker with pale edges to
the feathers ; the greater coverts have broad w^hite tips ; wdng
quills dark brown with white shafts ; secondaries wliite at the
base, the white predominating on the inner secondaries. The
middle of the lower back, rump, and tail coverts are blackish-
brown, the sides white ; the tail is dark Iirown in the centre,
lighter smoky browji at the sides.

Summer ; Upper parts rufous with black centres to the
feathers ; foreneck mid upper breast tinged with rufous and
spotted with dark brown.

230

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds have the upper plumage blackish, with rufous
borders and white edges to the feathers ; the lower parts are
tinged with dingy buff on the neck and breast, but nob spotted.

Bill black, straight ; iris brown ; legs and feet black or deep
^lead colour.

Length 6 ; wing 3*95; tail 1*6; tarsus * 8 ; middle toe and
claw *75; bill from gape *7.

Distribution. — Common all round the coast, except from
Negombo to Tang alia ; sometimes found inland round larger
tanks. Abundant in suitable localities throughout India
we.st of the Bay of Bengal. Breeds in Northern Europe and
Siberia, wintering in Africa and South -w'estern Asia.

Habits. — Feeds in largo flocks on flat sandy or mudd^^
shores ; in Ceylon it is commonest on the coast or round
lagoons. A few" immature birds stay with us through the
summer.

Tringa subminuta (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 275 ;

Legge, p. 889).

The Lo7uj-toed Stint.

Description. — Winter ; The plumage is similar to that of
T . minuta , hni is darker ; the head and neck are more spotted
with black, wLile the low er throat and foreneck are noticeably
streaked and mottled with brown. The shaft of the first
primary is dirty w'hite, of the remainder pale brown.

In summer also the colouration resembles that of the last
species, but in both stages this species may be distmguished
by the long middle toe and claw, which .together measure 0*9
to 1*0 inch as against ■75.

Bill olive-brown ; iris brown ; legs and toes olive-yellow or
brownish.

Length 6 ; wing 3*7; tail 1*5; tarsus * 8 ; bill from
gape *75.

Distribution. — Fairly common on the coast in the north-west,
north, and east of the Island, (’ommon in Bengal and
Burma during the north-east monsoon. Breeds in Eastern
Siberia, migrating to South-eastern Asia and Australia for
the winter.

CKYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 231

H obits. in small parties on salt marshes or on the
ooze round lagoons ; occasionally found in paddy fields near
the sea, as at Galle, or even further inland. A good many
barren birds remain with us through the summer months.
As usual, the birds which thus loiter are in winter plumage,
though birds which migrate have often assumed most of their
summer dress before leaving.

Tringa TBMMiNCKi (Blauford, Vol. IV., p. 75 ;

Legge, p. 892).

Temminck's Stint.

Description . — Winter : Upper plumage ashy-gray with
iiidistinct darker shaft -stripes, the colour becojni?ig deeper
towards the rump. The wings and central feathers of the
tail are dark browm ; the inner primaries, secondaries, and
greater wing coverts are tipped with w^hito ; shaft of the first
primary white, of remainder pale browm. The two outer
feathers on each side of the tail are pure white, as are the
sides of the rump and upper tail coverts. The lores are
browui edged above with a faint w'hite streak ; chin, throat,
and low^er parts white with a broad baud of brownish -gray
Oil the longer forenock and chast.

Summer : The upper plumage is darker and mottled with
black and the edges of the feathers are more or less tinged
with rufous ; the pectoral band i.s marked wdth small dark
spots.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet greenish-olive.

Length 6 ; wing 3*75 ; tail 2 ; tarsus '65 ; middle toe and
claw '75 ; bill from gape *65.

Distribution. — Obtained once near Trincomalee by Captain
Legge. Common in Northern India, rare in the south and
Burma. Breeds in the extreme north of Europe and Asia,
wintering in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Southern
Asia.

Hahiis . — Those of the Little Stint, with which it associates.
Quite possibly it visits the Island in small numbers regularly,
passing unnoticed among the swarms of the commoner
species.

232

SPOLT.V ZDYLANICA.

Tringa subaequata (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 278 ;

Legge, p. 879).

The Curlew Stint.

Description . — Winter ; General colour of upper parts ashy-
brown with slightly darker shaft-stripes ; most of the wing
coverts have paler edges and the greater coverts have white
tips ; primary coverts, primaries, and secondaries dark brown ;
tho' inner primaries and secondaries edged with white on the
outer w^eb ; the secondaries are also white at the base, the
white increasing on the inner feathers. Lower back and
centre of rump dark brown with paler edges ; upper tail
coverts and sides of the rump white. The tail is ashy-brown
fringed with wLite . The lores are dusky and bordered above by
a white streak running from, the bill over the eyes. Sides of
head and neck brow iiish with darker streaks ; lower neck and
chest tinged with gray and streaked with brown ; remainder
of lower parts white.

Summer : Upper plumage rufous chestnut mottled with black
and whitish -buff ; lower parts reddish -chestiuit with faint hoary
margins to the feathers, most conspicuous on the abdomen.

The young resemble old birds in winter plumage, but the
low er parts are almost all w hitc, and tho feathers of the upper
parts are fringed with buff or whitish.

Bill black and curving at the ti}>, the groove from the
nostrils distinctly marked for over half the length of the hill ;
iris brown ; legs dusky gray.

Length 8‘o; wing 5*1; tail 1*85; tarsus 1*2; bill from
gape 1*5.

Distribution.— Ahnnds,nt all round the coast of the dry
zone. Common on the coasts of India ; rare inland. Breeds
in the far north of Siberia, winternig in Africa, Southern Asia,
and Australia.

HdhiU. — Found on sandy shores and salt marshes, and
great numbers round lagoons ; seldom seen inland. It may
be met with in small troops associating with other Stints, or
in large flocks of its own species. Immature birds in con-
siderable numbers stay in the Island during the summer,
Mature birds often change to full summer dress before they
leave in May.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 233

Tbinga platebhyncha (BUmford, Vol. IV., p. 270).

Limicola platybhyncha (Legge, p. 896).

The Broad-hilled Stint.

Description . — The colouration is similar to that of the last
species, but the bird is slightly smaller. The shaft-stripes of
the upper plumage are more developed, while the rump, upper
tail coverts, and tail are blackish-brown with paler edges.
The under parts are white with a few narrow dark streaks on
the foreneck and upper breast. In the summer the upper
parts are velvety black with narrow' whitish or buff edges ;
the crown is almost unstreaked, and there are narrow' rufous
borders to the tertiaries. The throat, the sides of the neck,
the foreneck, and upper breast are tinged with rufous and
spotted with dark brown. In both stages the bird may be
recognized by the bill. The ridge between the nasal grooves
is not continued far down the upper mandible, which is
flattened out for about two-thirds of its length.

Bill brownish 'black ; iris dark brown ; legs olive -brown.

Length 7 ; wing 4'2 ; tail I'o ; tarsus ‘08 ; bill from gape
1-3.

Distribution . — Another rare straggler noted from Point
Pedro and the Hambantota District. Possibly not so rare as
would appear, as it may pass unnoticed among commoner
species. Scattered locally over the Indian and Burmese
coasts. Breeds in the north of Europe ajid Asia, wintering
round the Mediterranean and in Southom Asia.

Habits . — May bo looked for among flocks of other Stints on
sandy Or muddy flats by the sea and round lagoons. It
seldoin ventures inlajid.

Sub-family Scohpacinte.

Woodcocks anri Snipes.

These are a group of birds with w’ell-marked external
characteristics familiar to every sportsman. The bill is long
and slender, well provided with nerves, slightly swollen at the
tip, and, save in the case of the aberrant genus Rostratula,
straight and pitted. The eyes are large and set far back iji tjie

m

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

head. The tarsus is of moderate length, the front toes bear
no trace of webbing, the hind too is present but small. The
plumage of the upper parts is of richer colour and more
heavily mixed with black than is the case among the
Toianinx. All the species are more or less nocturnal in their
habits.

The sub-family is divided into three genera : —

1. Scolopax (the Woodcocks), in which the legs are
feathered to the tarsal joint, and the crown is banded across
with black. Only one species, the typical Woodcock,
occurs in Ceylon, being occasionally recorded from the hill
districts.

2. Gollinago (the Snipes). — In this genus the leg is naked
for some little way above the tarsal joint, and the crown is
streaked lengthwise by pale bands. Five species find their
way into the Ceylon list, but only one — the Pin -tailed Snipe — ■
is common ; the others are all rare stragglers.

3. Rosiratula (the Painted Snipes). — A curious genus which
differs from the others in many ways. The bill is slender, but
not so long as usual, slightly bent downwards at«the tip, and
not pitted. The birds are resident, whereas ail our other
members of the sub -family are migratory. The flight is weak,
the wing quills are short and broad, and marked with beautiful
buff -coloured ocellate spots. The female is larger than the
male, with a well-marked and more gaudy attire ; accordingly
young birds resemble the more soberly clad male in their
plumage. Only one species occurs in the Island,

Rov^h Key to Ceylon Scolopacinae.

I. — Bill straight ; crown barred crosswise ; legs feathered
down to tarsal joint. Genus Scolopax.

Scolopax rusticula (Woodcock).

II. — Tibia partly naked, head and back with pale stripes
engthwise. Genus Gallinago.

. A. — Bill over 2 inches, a pale stripe dowm middle of crown.

(«) Length about 12 inches, abdomen barred through'
out.

Gallinago nemoricoia (Wood Snipe).

CBYLON KAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 235

(5) Middle of abdomen not barred, save in exceptional
specimens. Length about 10 ■ 5 inches.

(1) Secondary quills with noticeable white tips.

No pin feathers in tail.

Gallinago codlestis (Common or Fantail Snipe).

(2) Pin feathers in tail, secondaries mth

narrow inconspicuous white tips or
none.

Gallinago stenura {Pindailed Snipe).

B. — Bill under 2 inches ; no pale band dowm middle of
crown ; back glossed with green and purple,
Gallinago gallinula (Jack Snipe).

III. — Sexes diSerent in plumage ; bill curved dowmwards
at the tip ; wing quills w^ith ocellate buff spots. Genus
Bostratula..

Rosirainla capensis (Painted vSnipe).

SooLOPAX EUSTICULA (Blanford, Vol, IV., p. 283 ;
Legge, p. 800),

The Woodcovh.

(Plate II., tig. 11 .)

Description. plumage blackish-gray mottled with
black and rufous ; forehead and fore part of crowm grayish ;
the top of the head ajid the nape black with twD tawniV
crossbars ; a dark broad stripe from the gape of the bill to
the eye and another down the cheek ; the rest of the head
and neck buff with black spots. The wing coverts and
tertiaries are barred with dusky browm and rufous ; tlie
primary coverts, primaries, and secondaries are black -brown
notched with rufous. The rump and upper tail coverts are
barred black and rufous ; tail black, the outer webs of the
feathers with rufous markings and the tips dark gray above,
silvery white underneath. The chbi is more or less white ;
the lower parts whity-brown barred across wth dark brown.

Bill dark brown, fleshy-brown near the base ; iris dark
l>rown ; legs and feet grayish-drab or lead colour.

9

6(9)16

236

spolia zeylanica.

Length 14 ; wing 7‘75 ; tail 3'25 ; tarsus 1*5 ; bill from
gape 3-00.

Distribution . — An occasional migrant to the higher hills.
Breeds in tho Himalayas above 10,000 feet, visiting in the winter
the lower valleys and the South Indian and Burmese hills.

Habits . — May be found occasionally in the hills from
November to February. The birds generally keep to damp
forest near water, where the ground is soft.

Gallin' AGO nemoricola (Blanford. Vol. IV., p. 285 ;

Legge, p. 814).

The Wood Snipe.

Description .— plumage black, the wing coverts
spotted and barred with tawny buff, and the scapulars with
broad tawmy edges ; head and neck brow^uish-black ; a light
stripe down the centre of the head imperfectly developed ; a
dark band from the gape of the bill to the eye, and another
across the cheek. The sides of the head and the neck all
round are dull buff streaked with black ; lower back and
rump marked with narrow* bars of whitish or brownish buff
brightening to rufous on the upper tail coverts. The six
central feathers of the tail are black ; their ends are rufous with
a slight black crossbar and pale tips. The outer tail feathers
are barred with dull rufoms and brown, and are pale-tipped.
The primary covert s, primaries, and secondaries are dark brown.
Breast and abdomen grayish-white barred with dull bro^vn ;
wing lining and axillaries grayish-brown barred with white.

Bill reddish-browm, pale at the base underneath ; iris dusky
brown ; legs plumbeous green.

Length 12 ; wing 5*5; tail 2*2; tarsus 1*5; bill from gape 2 ■ 5.

Distribution . — Its occurrence in Ceylon is a little doubtful,
no Ceylon specimens aro on record, but Neville states that it
has been found near Nuvvara Eliya. It ranges through the
Himalayas, where it breeds at considerable elevations ; in
winter it descends lower, and occasionally visits the hills
Southern India and Burma.

Habits . — Should be looked for in damp spots on tlio
outskirts of forest in the higher hills.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS. GXJLLS, AND TERNS. 237
Gallinago coslestis (Blanford, VoJ. IV., p. 286).

Galunago scolopacina (Legge, p. 821 ).

7'he Common or Fantail Snipe.

Df^mption . — This species in plumage closely resembles the
next, G. stenura^ but may be distinguished as folloAvs : — The
tail has no pin feathers ; on the axillaries the white bars are
broader than the brown ; the bill of the present si>ecies
broadens slightly towards the tip, that of the Pin -tailed Snipe
does not ; the outer web of the first primary is whitish instead
of brown ; the secondary quills have fairly conspicuous white
tips.

Length 10*5; wing 5'00 ; tail 2‘2o; tarsus 1’25; bill
from gape 2*6.

Distribution . — A very rare migrant during the north-east
monsoon. It is said to have been seen at Nuwara Eliya, and
two specimens were obtained at Tamblegam, near Trincomalee.
In Northern India it is the predominant Snipe, but in Southern
India and Burma it is rare, being largely replaced by the
Pintail Snipe. It breeds in Europe and Central and Northern
Asia, wintering in Southern Europe, North Africa, and
Southern Asia.

Habits. — Similar to those of the next species.

Galunago stenuea (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 289 ;

Legge, p. 816).

The Pintail Snipe.

Description . — General colour of upper plumage black ; the
top of the head with a broad pale biind dowii the centre, and
another on each side just over the eye ; a dark browm band
from the bill to the eye ; the sides of the head streaky whitish
and browm. The broad tawaiy edges of the scapulars form
two long bands down the back. The primary coverts,
primaries, and secondaries are black-browm, the later primaries
and the secondaries faintly tipped with white; tertiaries
l>aiTed black and tawny ; rump and upper tail coverts barred
with rufous or dark buff ; the ends of the tail feathers are

238

SPOLIA. ZEYLANICA.

rufous -yellow fringed with black and have pale edges ; the
pin feathers, which are often hidden under the tail coverts,
usually number six on each side and are brown with white
tips. The chin is whitish ; the neck all round and the upper
breast dull buff streaked with dark brown. The roni,ainder
of the lower parts is generally white, the flanks being
barred with brown, while the lower tail coverts are bufl
with dark brown markings. The wing lining and axillaries
are coloured dusky brown and white in bars of equal
width.

Bill blackish, paler at the tip, and olive-green underneath
at the base ; iris deep browui ; legs and feet olive-green.

Length 10 ■ 5 ; wing 5*25 ; tail 1*8; tarsus 1*25; bill from
gape 2-5.

Distribution . — The only sjiipe which visits the Island in any
great numbers. Abundant all over the low -country during
the north-east monsoon, and more or less plentiful in up-
country paddy fields and sw*amps. Common in Southern
India, Assam, and Burma, but rarer in the west and north.
Breeds in Eastern Siberia, and winters throughout South-
eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago.

Habits. ~~Tlhe oarhost birds arrive on the w^estern side of the
Island at the end of August or the beginning of September :
in the north, east, and south-east they are not generally found
till a few weeks later. The birds begin to leave again about
mid-April, and few are left by the end of the month. Some
immature individuals may stay with us during the south-west
monsoon, and in the Colombo Museum there is a fully-formed
egg taken from the oviduct of a bird shot late in the season,
showing that occasional and probably slightly wounded
stragglers may breed in the Island. Snipe keep to soft and
muddy ground, and are most abundant in large paddy fields
near jungle and in the marshy surroundings of tanks. They
move about from field to field a good deal, preferring, as a
rule, those in which the crop has grown fairly thick, but not
too high. To some extent they are nocturnal, and in the
low-country during the heat of the day they lie up in the edge
of the jungle round the fields, or in any little shady retreat
that may be handy.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 239

Gallinago galunula {Blanford, VoL IV., p. 292 ;

Legge, p. 828).

TM Jack Snipe.

Description, — Crown and nape black in the centre with a
tew rufous specks, and bordered on each side with broad buff
stripes from the bill to the nape ; a dark band from the bill to
the eye and a dark cheek stripe ; sides of the head speckled
whitish ; hind neck fulvous brown mottled with black and
traces of whitish. The back and scapulars are black with a
metallic gloss of green or purple, and mottled with rufous ; a
broad edge of rich buff on the outer webs of the scapulars
forms a band down each side of the back ; upper tail coverts
and tail brown bordered with buff. The wings are brown,
the lesser wing coverts with whitish and the median coverts
with rufous-buff edges ; secondary quills with white tips. The
chin i.s whitish ; the foreneck and upper breast brown
streaked \vith white and black ; lower breast and abdomen
white ; under tail coverts striped with brown,

Bill brown at tbc sides, black at the tip, elsewhere yellowish ;
iiis dark brown ; legs grayish -green.

Length 8*5; wing 4*25; tail 2 ; tarsus 0 ‘ 9 ; bill from gape 1 • b.

Distribution. — An occasional visitor to the extreme north of
the Island. A fairly common migrant in Xortherii India ;
rare in Southern India and Burma. Breeds in the Arctic
Circle of Europe and Asia, wintering in Southern Asia and the
countries bordering the Mediterranean.

Habits. — In general, a sobtary bird, frequenting damp
marshy ground, where the grass is thick.

Kostratula catensis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 293).

Khynch^:a capensis (Legge, p. 800).

The Fainted Snipe.

Description. — Male : Crown olive -black with a buff band
down the centre ; a ring round the eye and a stripe behind it
are also buff ; lores brown ; sides of head streaked white and
browi>. The upper surface is ashy-brown glossed with olive
and marked with fine wavy bars of dusky black and broader
bars of greenish-black ; the buff outer borders of the scapulars

240

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

form a pale streak down each side of the back. The tertiaries
and wing coverts are marked with buff bars and buff black-
bordered spots ; wing quills bluish-gray barred and blotched
with black and spotted with oval buff markings ; rump,
upper tail coverts, and tail blue-gray barred with black, and
with bufi spots on the coverts and tail. The chin is whitish ;
sides of neck, forcneck, and upper breast streaky brown and
white ; remainder of lower parts white, with a white band
running from the breast up each shoulder ; the sides of the
breast bordering this w^hite band are deep brown.

Female : The lores and cheeks are rufous, passing into
chestnut on the throat and round the neck. There is a broad
black pectoral gorget. The wing coverts lack the buff spots,
and beneath the scapulars is a tuft of pure white lanceolate
feathers. Young birds resemble adult nmles.

Bill dusky green, reddish at the tip ; iris olive-browm ; legs
olive-brown.

Distribution . — Resident throughout the Island, but moves
about a good deal, being commonest in the west during the
north-eRst monsoon. Found all over India south of the
Himalayas and in Burma ; ranges almost throughout Africa.
Madagascar, and Southern Asia.

Habits . — In its w^ays this species resembles the Rails more
than the other Snipes. It skulks about in damp ground,
where the grass and rushes are thick, or hides in damp corners
of paddy fields. It is heavy on the wing, and generally
difficult to flush. As a rule, not more than a pair are met with
together. It breeds in its haunts from November to May,
but mostly in March. The nest is a slight depression in moist'
ground, lined with grass or rushes. The four eggs are stone-
yeUow boldly blotched with black, and measure about 1*35
by -98.

Order GAVIA.

Gulls, Terns, and Skuas.

The Gaviee constitute an order which is closely related to the
preceding Limicolas. It has been shown that in all probability
the Gulls and theii’ allies sprang from the common ancestors
of the Plovers and Snipes, and are in fact aberrant Plovers, to

CEYLON BAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 241

which other aberrant Plovers, such as the Pratincoles and
Crab Plovers, show considerable affinity, all being specialized
offshoots from the same main stem.* In details of anatomy
the two orders display marked resemblance, the Gavise,
however, being modified in outward form to fit them for their
sea«faring life. Their wings arc long and pointed, giving
their flight speed and endurance ; their legs are short ; the
front toes are webbed, while the hind toe is small and set on
the foot at a higher level than the others ; the hill varies in
the families and sub-families of the order.

Ill their nidi ficat ion also these birds resemble the Waders ;
their eggs are of much the same character, being marked by
spots of two different hues, and laid on the ground with little
or no nest. The young are hatched covered with down, and
are able to run about at once, though for a few days they are
fed by their parents.

Tile classification of the order varies considerably among
different authors. By Dr. Blanford the Indian members are
divided as follows : — The Skuas are placed by themselves in
one family Stercorariidx ; the Gulls Larinx, the Terns
Sterninx, together with the Skimmers Rhynchopinx, of which
no species occurs in Ceylon, form three sub -families of a
second family Laridx.

The two families are outwardly distinguished thus : —

1 . In the Laridx the bill has no cere, Ce,, membrane of skin
covering the base of tlic bill from the forehead to the nostiils,
while the claws are only moderately curved and not sharp.

2. In the Rtercorariidx the bill is furnished with a cere,
and the claws are powerful, boldly curved, and sharji.

Family Larid^e.

As stated above, the Ceylon Laridx fall into two sub-
families, wffiich may be distinguished by the shape of the bill : —

A. - — Larinx. — The Gulls have the upper mandible longer

than the lower and curved at the tip.

B. — Sterninx, — The Terns have both mandibles of equal

length.

* Mr. R. p, L6we “ 0[i the Crab Plove ” Ihis, April, p. 337.

242

SPOLIA Z£YLA^^ICA.

Sub-family Larinas.

GvLls.

Gulls are in general birds of the sea, though many of them
are also found on inland waters, and some of them breed far
from the coast. They are fairly stout in build ; the wings
are long, and when closed project beyond the tail ; the tarsus
is shortish, and the feet large ; the front toes are fully webbed ;
the bill is of moderate length and fairly strong, the upper
mandible being curved downwards at the tip into a moderate
hook. They habitually rest on the surface of the water,
sitting very buoyantly. Often, however, they take to the
land, and can walk well. Their food consists mainly of dead
fish, floating garbage, and Crustacea.

The suh-family is not well represented in Ceylon. Only one
genus occurs withm Indian limits, and of this genus only two
species visit us. Neither of them breeds anywhere near the
Island, and one of them visits us only as a very occasional
storm-driven straggler.

Rough Key to Ceylon Larinas.

A. — Length 26 ; wing 19.

Larus ichtkyaetus (the Great Black -headed Gull).

B. — Length 17 ; wing 13.

Larus hrunneicephalus (the Brown-headed Gull).

Larus tciithyaetus (Blanford, Vol, IV., p. 299 ;

Legge, p. 1046)

The Great Black-headed GulL

Description. — Adult summer plumage : The whole of the
head, including the nape and throat, jet-black, contrasting
sharply with the neck and lower parts, which, together with
the tail coverts and tail, are white. There are two minute
patches of white, one above and one below each eye. The
mantle down to the rump, with the wing coverts and tertiaries,
are pale slate-gray ; first five primary quills white crossed near
the tip by a bar of black ; first quill also black along most of
the outer web ; later primaries gray on the inner web, white
on the outer web and tip ; secondaries mostly gray.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 243

Winter : The lower neck becomes white right up to the chin,
and the upper part of the head and nape white streaked with
brown-black.

Young birds are very differently coloured. The upper
plumage to the rump is mottled brown with paler edges to the
feathers ; tail coverts and upper part of the tail white ; the
end of the tail blackish -brown faintly tipped with white ;
under parts white, the sides of the neck and upper breast
more or less mottled with pale brown ; wing quilLs dark brown,
the secondaries with a narrow^ wdiito edge. As the bird grows
older the mantle gradually changes to gray.

Bill yellow with a black band halfway between the nostrils
and the tip, tip and gape dull crimson ; in young birds the
bill is dark horn-colour ; iris deep brow’n ; legs and feet dull
yellow.

Length 26 ; wing 19 ; tail 7*5 ; tarsus 3*00 ; bill from gape
3*5. Specimens vary in .size, and fomalos are smaller, w'ing
about 18.

' Distribution . — An occasional storm-driven visitor during
the north-east monsoon. Not uncommon in Northern India
and parts of Burma, otherwise rare. Breeds in Central Asia,
migrating in winter to Sonthern Asia and North-east Africa.

Habits ~ln Ceylon may be looked for on the coast, during
stormy w'eather, from about Novcmlior to March.

Lakus brunneicephalus {Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 301;

Legge, p. 1049).

The Brown-headed Oidl.

Description . — Adult in summer : The w*hole of the head and
upper neck hooded with brown, w*hich darkens on the nape,
contrasting sharply at tile point of junction with the white of
the lower nock ; the lower parts, rump, and tail are also white ;
mantle pearl -gray. The first five primary quills are w*hite at
the base with the outer jiortiou black, tho amount of black
decreasing in length from the first to the fifth quill ; the first
and second quills have a large white patch near tlie tip ; later
primaries mostly gray ; the secondaries the same colour as the
mantle.

10

6(9)16

244

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In winter there is no l)rown hood, the head being white
mixed with a littJe brown in front of the eye and behind the
ear coverts.

Young birds are mottled brown above, the colour gradually
changing to the pearl -gray of the adult. The primaries are
largely brown-black ; the outer third of the tail is of the same
shade tipped with white.

In adults the bill, eyelids, and feet are coraUred ; the iris
varies from white to brownish.

In young birds the bill is yellowish -red, blackish at the tip :
legs and feet reddish-yellow.

Length about 17 ; wing about 13; tail 5 '25; tarsus 2;
bill from gape 2*25. Females are smaller.

Dutrihniion . — Abundant round the coast in the north of
the Island from October to April. Rarer in the south, but
recorded from Gallo, Colombo, and Hainbantota. Found all
round the coasts of India and Burma ; also iulajid on large
rivers and lakes. Breeds in Central Asia.

Habits , — Occurs generally m flocks, and in Ceylon does not
appear to fly inland. Its habits are those of the family.

Sub -family Sterninw.

Terns.

The Terns are among our most pleasing birds, and the
commoner species are equally familiar sights round the coast
or on inland tanks. Their wings are very long and pointed,
the flight is buoyant and graceful, the buds constantly flying
over the surface of the water, into which they dip their bills
while on the wing to scoop up their food, chiefly small flsh
or little floating forms of animal life. They seldom alight
on the water, and swim far less than many birds whose
toes are not webbed. The bill is straight, or very gently
curved, and usually slender, while the mandibles are equal,
or nearly equal, in length. The legs and feet are generally
small.

The Indian members of the sub-family are divided into four
genera, distinguished, as shown in the key below, chiefly by
the shape of the tail, the nature of the webbing between the

CKYLON RAILS, WADKRS, GULLS. AND TURNS. 245

toes, and the character of the bill. Of the four genera, two—
Hydroprogne and i4ww5— each give its a single species ;
Hydrockelidon furnishes us with two, one of which is common
on inland waters, the other rare. Of the genus JSierna, we
have no less than twelve species. Two of those can be
distinguished at once by the colour of their upper plumage,
which is sooty-brown instead of some shade of pearly-gray ;
the remaining ten have to be differentiated mainly by their
wijig measurements and the colour of their bills and feet. In
consequence the key may not .seem very simple in its working,
but it should be borne in mind that the gray-mantled species
usually met with are either the three largest or the two
smallest. Of the five medium-sized species, only one — S.
fioitgalli — is in any degree cojnmon, the other four are rare,
two being rather doubtful in elusions in the (.'eylon list.

Rough Key to Ceylon Sterninx .

L— Medium size ; wing 8 to 9 inches ; webs deeply scalloped
between the toes ; tail short and only slightly forked. Genus
Hydrockelidon.

(а) Bill from gape 1 ■ 6 ; in winter the Idack spots 0 ]i the

crown extend forward of the eyes ; iji summer the
wing lining remains wlrite.

Hydrockelidon hybridn (the Whiskered Tern).

(б) Bill from gape 1*3 ; in wijitcr t]\e black sjxds on the

crown do not generally extend forw ard of the eyes ;
in summer wing lining turns black.

Hydrockelidon kueoptem (White-winged Black
Tern).

n. — Tail forked, but very short ; bill powerful : webs
fully developed ; size large. Genus Hydroprogne.

(a) Wing 15 *5 ; bill red.

Hydroprogne easpia (Caspian Tern).

UL — Tail deeply forked, the outer pair of feathers notice-
ably longer than the rest ; bill fairly slender ; webs well
developed. Genus Siermi.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Back gray,

A. — Large size; wing over 11-5 inches; tarsus

blackish.

(а) Bill black ; wing 12 '5 inches.

Sterna anglica (Gull -billed Tern).

(&) Bill yellow, under 3 inches ; wing 12 inches.
Sterna media (8maller Crested Tern).

(c) Bill yellow, about 3' 5 inches; wing
14 inches or over.

Sterna hergii (Large Crested Tern).

B. — Medium size ; wing 8 to ll’o inches.

(fi) Bill yellow and stout ; legs red ; wing
11 inches.

Sterna 8ee7ia (Indian River Tern) .

(б) Bill orango-ycUow and slender ; legs

orange-red ; wing 9 inches.

Sterna melanoga^ter (Black-bellied Tern).

(c) Bill coral -red in summer, duller in winter,
about 2 inches ; legs and feet same
colour as bill.

Ster7ia fluviatilis (the Common Torn).

(t^) Bill black always, about l'7o inches;
legs and feet blackish.

Sterna longipennis (Nordmann’s Tern).

(e) Bill orange-red, black at the tip ; legs
and feet scarlet ; outer tail feathers
practically all white.

Sterna dougalli (Roseate Tern).

C. — Small size ; wing about 7 inches.

(а) In adults shafts of aU primaries, in youiig

shaft of first primary, white.

SierrwL ninensiH (White-shafted Ternlet).

(б) Shaft of first throe primaries blackish.

Sterna mundersi (Black -shafted Ternlet)-

CEYLON HAILS, WADERS, GULLS. AND TERNS. 247

2. Back dark brown.

(а) Wing 10 inches.

Sterna anssstheta (Panayan Tern).

(б) Wing 11*5 inches.

Sterm fuliginosa (Sooty Tern).

IV. — Tail not forked, but wedge-shaped ; webs well
developed ; plumage dark. Genus Anous.

(a) Size medium; wing 10 ’5 inches; plumage blackish-
brown.

Anous siolidus (the Noddy).

Hydrooheltdon hybrida (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 307;

Logge, p. 996).

The Whisker Tern.

Description. — Summer : A black cap on the forehead,
crown, and nape ; below this a white streak runs from the
gape of the bill to the nape ; upper parts ashy-gray ; chin
white to pale gray, gradually darkening through slate-gray
on the breast to sooty- black on the abdomen and flanks ;
vent, under tail coverts, and wing lining white. The primaries
in fresh plumage are frosted, otheiwise darker than the gray
of the upper plumage.

Winter : Upper parts hghter gray than in summer ; all the
lower part, including the wing Ihiing, are white. The forehead
is white, the crowi w^hite with streaking black spots, which
begm at a point a little forward of the eye and increase on the
nape, which is bordered behind by a more or less imperfect
white collar.

Young birds are mottled brown on the crown and mantle,
the plumage gradually changing towards the gray of the adult.

Bill blood -red ; iris brown ; legs and feet dull red ; claws
black.

Length 10; wing 8*75 ; tail 3*25; tarsus 0*9; bill from

gape 1*6.

Distribution . — Common all round the coast, also on marshes,
tanks, and paddy fields inland, chiefly in the northern half of
the Island. Abundant throughout India mid Burma. Occurs

248

SFOLIA ZKYLANICA.

throughout temperate Europe, all Africa, and Southern Asia
to Australia. Many birds are migrants in the southern p<art
of their range, but some are resident.

Habits . — Found more in marshes, paddy fields, and round
tanks or lagoons than by the open coast. Like gulls in
England they often follow the plough. Many of our birds are
migrants, seen only during the north-east monsoon. Some
birds stay, chiefly immature individuals in winter dress, but
others are in full summer plumage, so that the nest and eggs
may yet be found in Ceylon.

The birds breed in colonies on beds of water-lilies or other
floating plants in large swamps ; the nest is a fairly large
structure of reeds or straw. The eggs are generally three,
pale olive or greenish, vith blotches of purple-gray and brown.
Average size about 1*50 by 1*10.

Hybrochelidox leucoptera (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 308 ;

T^gge, p. 1000).

The White-U'imfed Black Tern.

Description . — In winter plumage closely resembles the
previous species, but is slightly smaller ; the bill is smaller
and darker, and on examination of the series iji the British
Museum the forepart of the head appears to be whiter, the
black spots of the crown seldom coming further forw*ard than
the eye In summer the species is at once recognizable,
as the head and neck, the back, and the under parts as
far as the vent, together with the whig lining, are black.
The coverts on the edge of the wing are white, as are the
nimp and the upper and low^er tail coverts ; tertiariea dark
gray ; remainder of wing lighter gray, except for the first few
primaries, which are often sooty -brt)wn, where the frosting has
worn off.

Young birds are mottled with dark browm on the crown and
mantle, and have whitish upper tail coverts.

Bill livid red in summer ; blackish-red in winter ; iris dark
brown ; legs vermilion.

Length 9' 5; wing 8*25; tail 2*8; tarsus *75; bill from
gape 1*3.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, QULLS, AND TEENS. 249

Disirihution . — Until recently only a few specimens have
been recorded from Ceylon, but in April, 1914, at Topawewa
aiidMinneri in the North-Central Province, and in April, 1915,
near Hambantota, I found a fair number of specimens flying
among flocks of the previous species. At that time of year
the birds were changing to summer dress, and the black wing
lining at once betrayed them. It is possible that being
mainly migrants, and almost indistinguishable from the
Whiskered Tern in their winter dress, they often pass unnoticed.
The species -is common in certain localities in Burma, but
extremely rare in India west of the Bay of Bengal. It ranges
through temperate Europe and Asia in summer, wintering
southwards from Africa to Australia.

Habits , — Those of the last species, with which it associates.
As it has been obtained in the Island in May, July, and
October, it Is quite possible that if over H. hybrida is found
breeding in Ceylon, this species may be found nesting in the
same colony. The eggs are very similar, but slightly smaller
and darker.

Hydropeogne caspia (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 309).

Sterna taspta {Leggo, p. 1008 ).

The. Caspian Tern.

Description, — Summer : The forehead, crown, and nape
are glossy green -black ; remainder of the upper parts and the
wings pearl-gray ; primaries wJien fresh are frosted, getting
darker as the frosting wears off ; rump and tail pale gray ;
entire under plumage white.

In winter the black cap becomes white, thickly streaked
with black, and behind it is a white collar.

Young birds resemble adults in winter dress, but have more
black round the eye ; the mantle and tail are mottled and
barred with rusty black, and the priimu*y quills black frosted
^Ith gray.

Bill stout, coral-red ; ins dark brown ; logs and feet black.

Length 20; wing 15*5; tail 5*5; depth of fork 1'25;
bill from gape 3*5.

250

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution . — Fairly common on th.e north coast during the
north-east monsoon ; rarer elsewhere. A few birds remain in
the north to breed. Locally found in many parts of India and
Burma. Occurs throughout the whole of the Old World, except
in the extreme north, also in North America and Australasia.

Habits.— Found in Ceylon chiefly on lagoons near the coast.
When Ashing it flies with its large bill pointing downwards,
and covers its beat Avith a regular and powerful flight. Mr. H.
Parker found a few birds breeding in *Iune on sand banks ofl
the island of Mannar, One or two eggs were laid in shallow
hollows scratched in the sand. Colour grayish-white with
markings of gra\dsh-purple and darkbrowm; average size 2*43
by P70.

Sterxa ANGLIC a (Blanfoi'd, Vol. IV., p. 311 ;

Legge, p. 1011).

The GulDbilkd Tern.

Description . — Summer : A black cap on the head from the
forehead to the nape, coming as far dowm as the lower edge
of the eye ; the nape is crested ; remainder of upper plumage
pearl-gray ; the wing quills are frosted wLen fresh, smoky-
brown as the frosting wears off ; low'er parts, including wing
lining, white.

In winter the black cap becomes white streaked with black,
otherwise there is no change. Young birds are gray or gray
and white on the crOAvn, and the primaries are usually darker.
Very young birds are partly brown on the back.

Bill black ; legs and feet black, sometimes tinged reddish ;
iris hazcl-browm.

Length 15; wing 12-5; tail 5 '25, depth of fork 1'5;
tarsus 1’4 ; bill from gape 2.

Distribution. —Common during the north-east monsoon on
lagoons and estuaries from Mannar round through Trincomalec
to Hambantota ; rare on the west and south-west coast ;
occasionally found inland on the larger tanks. Common ni
winter throughout India, and found on the coast in Burma.
Occurs from the east coast of North America, throughout
temperate and Southern Europe and Asia, to North Africa
and Australasia.

CEYLON KAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 251

Habits . — Frequents sheets of fresh water and brackish
lagoons rather than the open coast. Most of our birds are
migrant, but some remain all the year. The majority of these
are immature specimens in winter plumage, but some, as
Capt. Legge noticed, were in breeding dress, so a lookout may
be kept for breeding birds. The eggs are of the usual type,
and measure about 2 by r46.

Sterna media (Hlanford, Vol, IV., p. 313 ; Legge, p. 1030).

The Smaller Crested Tern,

(Plate II., fig. 12.)

Description. — Summer : A black cap from the forehead to
the nape coming as far down a.s the lovi er edge of the e 3 'e ; the
crest also is jet-black ; back, wings, and tail pearl -gray. The
lower ])arts and a collar round the neck arc wLitc. The
outer tail feathers arc sometimes whitish ; the primary quills
when fresh are frosted silver-gray on the outer web ; the
inner webs are brownish -gray near the shaft, otherwise
white.

In winter the nape and a band from it to the front of the eye
remain black ; the feathers of the crown are black with white
borders ; the forehead and lores are white.

Young birds bear the winter dress of adults, with some
brown on the lesser wing coverts, the tertiaries, and tail.

Bill yellow ; iris brown ; legs ajid feet black, the soles pale
yellow.

Length about 16 ‘n, less in winter plumage, when the tail is
shorter ; wing 12 ; tail in summer 6 ’75, in winter may be only
5 ; depth of fork 2-3 ; tarsus I’OO ; bill from gape 2’ 8.

Distribution. — Common all round the coast during the north -
cast monsoon, A migrant species common in winter on the
coast of India, but rarer in Burma . Extends from the shores
of the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, breeding on sand
banks in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

Habits, — This species frequents lagoons and sheets of open
water near the sea as well as the open coast, but it never goes
far inland. It often associates in large flocks, and may be
met with several miles out at sea.

11

6 ( 9)16

252

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sterna berqh (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 314; Legge, p. 102t>).
The Lar(je Crested Tern.

Description. — Though this bird may be distinguished by its
larger size, the colouration is the same as in the last species,
save that the forehead is white in summer and the crest more
distinct, and that at all seasons the mantle is much darker
gray with a smoky-brown tinge.

Young birds have a good deal of brown on the upper parts,
and the wing quills are mostly smoky-brown.

Bill pale yellow ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet black,
tinged at times with red ; soles yellowish.

Length about 21 ; wing 14*5 ; tail 6*5-8 ; tarsus 1*3 ; bill
from gape 3*6.

Distribution. — Found all round the coast, especially during
rough weather. Fairly common round the coast of India ;
rarer in Burma. Ranges from the west coast of South Africa,
along the shores of the Indian Ocean, to Polynesia and the
China Sea. The race found in (,^eylon and round the Bay
of Bengal has lately been sub -specifically distinguished as
Sterna [Thalasseus) bergii edioardsi.

Habits. — A maritime species, which may often be seen in
fine weather fishing miles out at sea. Rough weather drives
it to the shore, but it seldom goes inland. It has been found
breeding in June on rocks off the south coast and on sand
banks between Mannar and India . The eggs, one to three in
number, are pinkish -buff or green-gray blotched with black or
reddish-brown and inky-gray.

Sterna seen a (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 315 ; Legge, p. 1003),
The Indian River Tern.

DeJirHption . — Summer : A cap of glossy green-black on the
head from the forehead to the nape, extending down the side
of the head to a little way below the eyes ; a small white patch
under each eye ; remainder of upper plumage dark pearl -gray,
becoming paler on the rump and tail ; wing quills in fresh
plumage frosted white on the outer webs ; under parts and
wing lining delicate pale gray, which passes into white at the
line of junction with the black cap and on the under tail

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 253

coverts. In winter, after the moult, the forehead becomes dull
white, the crown gray ; the crown then gradually passes
through a streaky black stage into the full sumnrer plumage.

Ill the young the feathers of the upper parts are smoky-
gray with a brown inner and a whitish-bulf outer border.

Bill in summer orange ; iris brown ; legs orange-red. In
winter plumage the bill and legs are duller.

Length 15 to 18 ; wing 11 ; tail 6-9-5 ; depth of fork 5-6 ;
tarsus *8 ; bill from gape 2*3.

Distribution. — Rather a doubtful iTihabitant. Layard stated
it was common in the north, but no one else appears to have
met with it. A resident species on large rivers throughout
India and Burma, extending as far east as Singapore.

Habits. — A river species, which should be looked for on the
sand banks of our largest rivers and round our larger tanks.

Sterna melanogaster (Blanford, Vol IV., p. 31f)).

STiilRNA MELANOGASTRA (Legge, p. 1006),

The Black-bellied Tern.

Description.— : The forehead, crown, and nape
down to the lower edge of the eye black ; the lores, chin,
cheeks, and throat white or Tiearly white ; the upper parts
ashy-gray with a brown tinge on the wings ; the wing quills
have the usual frosting, becoming dusky brown where it has
worn off ; the tail is paler than the hack ; the outer web of
the outer tail feathers is white. The lower neck is pale gray,
passing on the breast through chocolate to black, which
continues from, the low-er breast to the tail coverts ; wing
lining white.

In winter the lower parts are white, and the cap white
streaked with black.

Half -grown birds are mottled with brown and buff on the
upper parts.

Bill orange-yellow ; iris brown ; legs and feet orange-red.

Length 13 ; wing 9 ; tail 5 ; depth of fork 3*5; tarsus -55 ;
bill from gape 1 ■ 8.

THsirihution . — ‘Another rather doubtful inhabitant reported
by early observers from the north of the Island, but probably

254

SPOIJA ZEYLANICA.

in mistake for H. hybrida. No authentic specimens appear
to have been obtained. Found by rivers and tanks through-
■ out India and Burma, but rarer in the south than in the north.

Habits . — Those of the last species. The only likely place
in the Island for these two Terns is on the broad sandy reaches
of the lower Mahaweli-ganga and in the adjoining manshes.

Sterna fluviatilis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 318 ;

Legge, p. 1015).

The Com7no}i Tern.

Description. — Summer : A black cap from the forehead to
the nape, extending down the side of the head to the lower
edge of the eye ; back and wings ashy-gray. The first primary
has the outer web black and the portion of the inner web
next the quill blackish, the remainder of the inner web white ;
the black decreases on the second and inner primaries. The
rump, upper tail coverts, and the inner webs of the tail feathers
are white ; the outer webs of the tail feathers gray. The lower
lores, checks, chin, throat, wing lining, and under tail coverts
are w’hite or nearly white ; breast and abdomen pale vinous gray,

In wnnter the forehead is white or mottled, and the crown
streaked with black ; lower parts whitish.

Immature birds have a whitish forehead, a sooty-black
nape, a dirty white collar round the neck, and a dark gray
band along the wing coverts. Very young birds are also
mottled on the mantle.

Bill of adult coral-red in summer, duller in winter ; young
birds have a blackish bill ; iris brown ; legs and feet the same
colour as the bill.

Length 14 ; wing 10*5 ; tail 6*5 ; depth of fork 3-5 ; tarsus
*8 ; bill from gape 2.

Distribution. — An occasional migrant during the north-cast
monsoon to Ceylon and India, most of the birds being im-
mature. Found throughout the temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and North America.

Habits. — Similar to those of the Gull -billed Tern. It
only occasionally seen in Ceylon, but in October, 1874, Cnpt.
Legge found it plentiful near Trinconialee.

CEYLO.N RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 255

Sterna lonoipennis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 319 ; see
Legge, p. 1016).

. Nordmanfis Tern.

Description. — Similar to that of S. fiuviaiilis, save t^iat the
bill and feet are always blackish and slightly smaller, the
bill in the present species being onh 1'75 from the gape as
again.st 2.

Distribution.— One example shot by Capt. Legge at Trinco-
malee in June, and classified by him as S. fluviatilis^ is now in
the British Museum, and has been assigned to the present
species, which ranges from North-eastern Asia to New Guinea,
and has been obtained in the Malay Peninsula.

Sterna douoalli (Blanford, Vol, IV., p. 319 ;

Legge, p. 1033).

The Roseate Tern.

Description . — Summer ; A black cap from the bill to the
upper part of the hind neck, coming down the sides of the
head to the lower edge of the eye ; remainder of the hind
neck white, shading into the pearl -gray of the upper plumage ;
primary quills a little darker with some black ; all the
primaries and secondaries have a white inner border. The
tail is a little paler than the back, and the long outer tail
feathers are almost white throughout. The under parts are
white with a roseate tinge.

In winter the top of the head forward of the eyes is white
with black spots, while the rosy hue almost disappears from
the under parts. Immature birds rescinble adults in winter,
but the black cap is tinged with browm ; the upper parts are
white banded with brown, and the darker parts of the primaries
are dark gray instead of black.

Bill in summer orange-red at the base, remainder black, in
winter almost all black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet coral-
red or scarlet. /

Length about 15 ; wing 8'75 ; tail 5 '5-7 '5 ; depth of fork
4-5 ; tarsms * 85 ; bill from gape I ’ 90.

Occasionally seen in fairly large numbers at
’^’arious points on the coast. Occurs in the Andamans, but

256

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

scarcely anywhere else on the Indian coast. Ranges all along
the temperate and tropical shores of the Atlantic and round
parts of the Indian Ocean.

Habits . — A Sea Tern rarely seen away from the coast,
seldom even haunting lagoons. Mr. H. Parker once found
a colony breeding in June on sand banks in the Gulf of
Mannar. The eggs were one or two in number, brownish or
greenish -gray, blotched with dark brown and inky gray.
Average measurement 1'58 by 1*12.

Sterna sinensis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 320 ;

Legge, p. 1019).

The While-sliafkd Ternlet.

Description . — Summer : An arrow-shaped white patch on
the forehead running back above the eye ; below this a black
band from the bill to the eye ; the crown down to the lower
edge of the eye and the nape black. The upper plumage
pearl-gray, darker on the wings, and paling to white or
whitish -gray on the upjier ta il coverts and tail. The outer we1>
and half the inner web of the first two primaries black or dark
gray, the quill shafts and the inner half of these feathers white.
The under plumage is white, sometimes tinged with gray.

In winter the white i>atch on the forehead is broader and
the tail shorter.

Young birds on the crown are grayish streaked with black,
which increases towards maturity ; the black band from the
bill to the eye is wanting, and the primaries are grayer ; onh
the shaft of the first primary is white, those of the later
primaries are grayish or brewnish.

BUI in summer yellow with a black tip, in winter brown ;
iris hazel -brown ; legs and feet in summer orange-yellow, ia
winter dusky yellow.

Length about 10, when the tail is fully developed ; wing 7^;
tail3‘5-5-5 ; depth of fork 2-3 4 ; tarsus '65 ; bill from gape 17.

Distribution . — Common round the coast of the dry zone,
rare on the west coast south of Puttalam. Itound on the
east coast of India and in Burma, extending eastwards to
Japan and Australia.

CErLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 267

Habits . — Occurs on the open coast and on lagoon.s near the
sea. During the breeding season some birds move inland to
breed on the shores of large tanks, such as Minneri, where
the water is not choked with weeds and the shores are
gravelly ; it also breeds on the sandy shores of lagoons. The
breeding season is from June to August ; the nest is a shallow
depression in gravel or sand with little or no lining. The eggs
are two or three in number ; the colour is pale brownish-buff
marked with deep brown and inky gray. Average size about
1 '20 by *94.

Sterna saundersi (Blanford, Vol. tV., p. 321 ;

Legge, p. 1023).

The Black-shafted TernleJ.

Description . — Similar to that of the last species, but
slightly smaller ; the shafts of the first three wing quills are
dusky brown or black, whereas in S. sineyisis the first quill
shaft is clear white ; the mantle is paler, and the tail grayer ;
the bill is more slender, and even Ie.ss .slightly curved.

Length about 8*5; wing G*75; tail up to 3*0; depth of
fork 1*0; tarsus *6 ; bill from gajie 1 *6.

Distribution . — Not so common as the last species, but more
widely distributed round the coast. Its range extends along
the coasts of the Indian Ocean froin Houth Africa to Burma.

Habits . — Similar to those of the last species. It has been
found breeiling in company with it in June on the south-east
coavst. The eggs are slightly longer, but narrower.

Sterna an.estheta (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 323 :

Legge, p. 1040).

The Panaifan Tern.

Desenption . — A white arrowhead patch on the forehead
extending above the eyes and bordered below by a black
band from the eye to the bill ; the crown, nape, and sides of
the head behind the eyes are black ; hind neck grayish-white ;
rest of upper parts dark grayish -brown ; primaries are darker
brown than the back, with some whitish-gray on the inner

258

SF0LI.4 ZKYLANICA.

webs. The long outside pair of tail feathers are white, darken-
ing to gray-brown on the inner webs towards the tip. The
cheeks and lower parts are white, with a sooty tinge on the
breast, abdomen, and flanks. In winter for a short while the
feathers of the lores and crown are mottled with white.

Immature birds are whiter on the head, the feathers on the
back are grayer \^ith whitish edges, and there is less white on
the outer pair of tail feathers.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris deep brown.

Length 14*5 ; wing 10 ; tail 6-7, depth of fork 3-4 ; tarsus
• 8 ; bill from gape 2.

Disfribulion . — Numerous on the coast at intervals, especially
after high winds ; found all round the Indian and Burmese
coasts and on the outlying islands, its range extending through-
out the tropics.

Habits . — An oceanic species, often seen far from land, and
breeding on islands, such as the Laccadives. During high
winds they appear on shore, probably having been driven
by the w'eather from the open sea.

Sterna fulioinosa (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 324 ;

Legge, p. 1036).

The Sooty Tern.

Descriplion . — Similar to that of the last species, but larger
and darker. The white arrow-shaped patch on the forehead
is broader, but does not run so far back, stopping above the
middle of the eye, while the black stripe in front of the eye
runs down more obliquely to near the gape of the bill. The
upper plumage is sooty- black, the lower parts white with a
grayish tinge on the abdomen and lower tail coverts. In
winter the lores and crown become flecked with white.

Immature birds are sooty-brown above, the feathers with
white tips, which are broadest on the wing coverts and terti-
aries ; the \m(Ier parts are slightly paler brown than th(;
upper plumage, the vent being grayish.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris almost black.

Length 17 ; wing 11*5 ; tail 6 ‘5-7 *5 ; depth of fork 3'5-
4*5; tarsus * 9 ; bill from gape 2 * 3.

CEYLO^f RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, A.VD TERiJS.

259

Distribution. —H b 8 been recorded two or three times from
the coast near Colombo, and is occasionally met with on
Indian shores. Its range is the same as that of the Panayan
Tern, but it keeps oven more to the open sea, breeding on
oceanic islands.

Akous stolidus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 325 ;
l^gge, p. 1043).

The Noddy.

Description . — Forehead and crown pale gray, passing
through gray-brown on the nape into the dark smoky-brown
of the upper and lower parts, The lores are black, gradually
paling into lead-bro^vn on the cheeks and throat. The wing
quills and tail feathers are darker than the body.

Immature birds are paler brown, ’with a grayish-brown
forehead and neck.

Bill black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet dark flesh colour
or reddish-brown, the webs paler.

Length 1 fl ; wing 10*5; tail 6 ; tarsus 1*0; hill from gape 2*3.

Distribution . — An oceanic bird, occasionally seen on the
seas round Ceylon, and once obtained on the beach near
Colombo. It also occurs in the Bay of Bengal, and breeds on
the Laccadives in February. The range extends all round the
tropics.

Family STEROORARiin.E.

The Shuars.

The Skuas are a family of marine bii'ds, with a piratical
manner of existence. They obtain their living chiefly by
chasing other sea birds on the wing, forcing them to drop any
food which they have secured, and bearing off the booty thus
relinquished. They also harry colonies of breeding birds,
stealing the eggs and fledglings.

As I have shown above in my remarks on the order, the
chief external differences between Skuas and Gulls lie in the
bill and claws. The hind too is small ; the front toes are long
and fully webbed ; the wing is long and pointed ; the tail is
longish and rounded, and the two middle tail feathers arc
noticeably longer than the rest.

12

0(9)1 b

260

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

Skuas breed in the cold regions of both hemispheres, at
other times they range far into the tropica. Several species
occasionally visit Indian seas, but apparently only one large
form, of which the classification is a little open to doubt, has
been obtained in Ceylon.

Stercorarius ANTAROTrcus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 330,
footnote ; Legge, p. 1050, footnote).

The Antarctic Skua.

Description . — Upper parts dark brown, darkest on the
crown ; the under surface slightly paler ; the neck and mantle
feathers have paler shaft-stripes ; the primaries aro white at
the base and black towards the tips.

Immature birds are paler brown throughout, with light
shafts to the neck feathers and grayish edges to the feathers
of the under surface.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet black.

Length 24 ; wing 16’ 5 ; tail 6 ‘5.

Distribution . — A fine immature specimen with its wing
clipped was brought alive to Capt. Legge by a native, w’ho
said it had been caught near Chilaw. As it seemed very
tame, he was doubtful of the authenticity of the record.
Since then, however, two more immature large dark Skuas
have been shot in Ceylon. One was found in an exhausted
state after a storm at Trincomalee ; the other was killed
while swimming in the sea at Negombo. Both these later
specimens have been referred tentatively to the present
species. The usual range of this Skua is from the Antarctic
Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope and Australia.

Plate L

261

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

? BQU0S ZBYLANICUS.

By E. J. Wayland, E.G.y,,
Assistant Mineral Surveyor Jor Ceylon.
(With two Plates.)

I.— Intkoduotion.

A t a mating of the Ceylon Natural History Society held
on Friday, December 17, 1915, Dr. Joseph Pearson
exhibited two teeth of a horse (a canine and the first upper
left molar), which were recovered from a bed of gray sandy
clay at a depth of 23 feet below the surface, and about 18.} feet
below mean sea level, in a trench opened by the Colombo
Drainage Works at Wellawatta.

Wellawatta is a southern suburb of Colombo, and is situated
about 4 miles south of the Fort. The trench was opened
between the main road and the railway line ; it ran more or
less parallel to both, and was approximately 200 yards from
the sea at the point where the teeth were obtained. The
section exposed above the teeth was as follows

Feet.

Vegetable earth . . . . 4

Vegetable earth and sea sand .. 4

Clean sand . . . . .. 5^

Coral fragments ■ ■ 1 ^

Gray sandy clay . . . . 8^

The bottom of the gray sandy clay was not reached. As
may be expected, lateral variations along the section were
to be seen ; thus, the stratum of clean sand passes horizontally
into sandstone, while coral fragments give place to solid
reef near Wellawatta station. The teeth were discovered at
a depth of 8 fifet below the stratum of coral fragments, and
were fortunately saved by a kangany, who had the intelligence
to realize the remarkable nature of the find.

On the supposition that horses were unknown in Ceylon
before the days of European occupation, the occurrence of
the teeth . in the gray sandy clay could only be accounted for
by postulating some exceptional circumstances of natural

262

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

burial ; for, since it was evident that the strata had not been
disturbed, the possibility of burial in a refuse pit or of deliberate
interment was out of the question. The fragmentary nature
of the coral stratum above the teeth was not at first realized,
and the hypothesis advanced at the meeting of the Ceylon
Natm-al History Society, already referred to, was that the
teeth had been carried to their position in the section by means
of a mud stream (the gray sandy clay) which flowed into a
kind of cavern, the roof of which was formed of coral rock.

Apart from the improbability of this explanation arising
from the difficulty of accounting for the cavern in the first
place, the discovery of the fact that the coral stratum was a
fragmentary and not a solid one gave the deathblow to the
Oiwern theory, and substantiated the opinion — which 1 had
reason to confirm when subsequently visiting the site with
]>. Pearson — that the teeth ^vere. geologically speaking, in
sii%. There is nc a jmori reason why the remains of a horse
introduced by Europeans should not be found under circuni-
stances similar to those pertaining to the Wellawatta remains.
One has only to postulate certain land movements within the
last few centuries, and the occurrence of the fossil remains
of a modern horse may easily be accounted for. But the
question is essentially geological, and the answer must be
detennined by evidence afforded by the recent marine and
estuarine deposits around the coast. It was with due regard
to these that I stated my opinion that the remains are those
of a creature whose advent long antedated the European
occupation of the Island, and in all probability the iSinhalese
invasion of Lanka.

Some exception has been taken to my use of tlie term
“ fossil.” The following quotation from Sir Archibald Gcikie
will serve as my justification : —

The term “fossil,” meaning literally anything “dug up.
was formerly applied indiscriminatHy to any mineral aubstance
taken out of tile earth’s crust, whether organized or not. Ordinary
minerals and rocks were thus included as fossils. Eor many
years, however, the meaning of the word has been so restricted
as to include only the remains or traces of plants and animaL
preserved in any natural formation, whether hard rock or loose
superficial deposit. The idea of antiquity or relative date is nol
necessarily involved in the conception of tlie term. Thus, th''

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

263

bones of a sheep buried under gravel and silt by a modern flood,
and the obscure crystalline traces of a coral in ancient marshes
of limestone are equally fossils.*

It should be noted that by no means are all fossils petrified,
liideed, at a guess, I should say that at least 50 per cent,
are not.

The object of this paper is to show reason for the opinion,
already stated, that the teeth discovered during excavation
carried out by the Colombo Drainage Works are not those of a
modern horse, but that they are to he regarded as evidence of
the former existence of Equus in Ceylon during a remote —
and, as I shall hope to show, a prehistoric — period.

I have to thank Dr. Pearson for the loan of the teeth and for
information concerning them ; Mr. Paul Pieris for historical
facts ; Mr. A. de Courcy Carson for some geographical informa-
tion ; Mr. G. F. Walton for a detailed drawing of the trench ;
and Mr.^G. W. Sturgess, Government Veterinary Surgeon, for
the loan of a horse’s skull.

II. — Historical Aspect.

The question naturally arises, Is there any historic or
traditional evidence to prove that horses existed in this
Island before the first European occupation ?

In late mediaeval times the horse could not be counted as
a member of the Ceylon fauna, for Knox, speaking of the
Sinhalese in the seventeenth century, says : “ Lions, Wolves,
Horses, Asses, Sheep, they have none.”t But some Euro-
peans in the country possessed steeds it would seem,J for the
same author says of the French Embassador : “ He rode up
from Cotiar on Horseback.” §

That the Sinhalese have been acquainted from the earliest
times with the horse there can be no doubt, since they have their
own name for it, as have the Tamils ; nor, since the antiquity
of the horse in India is unquestionable, is this to be wondered

♦Text book of Geology, Lojidon. 1903, Book V., Vol. IL, pp. «24,
825.

t Robert Knox : “ An Historical Relation of Ceylon. ’ London.

1981, p. 20. . ,

X In the time of Knox the Portuguese were already breeding horses
on tho island of Delft.

S Op. cit., p. 1 84,

2B4

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

at.* * * § There are, however, very few place names in this
coimtry which record the former existence of this creatui*e.
The writer is only aware of three, though there may be others :
Kuthirairmlai {T, the horse mountain) on the north-west coast
of the North-Western Province, identified with the Hipporus
of Pliny by some authors, is well known ; two others, as I am
informed by Mr. Carson, are to be found in the North-Central
Province : one, KuthiraikattaTnoddai (T, the post where the
horse was tied), is situated some fi miles south of Vedivaitta-
kalla ; and the other, Asvayohe7id<ikanda [S. the hill where
the horses were tied), is near the north-eastern boundary of
the Province.t

Ancient records, however, are more productive, and from
them a good deal of evidence may be obtained to show the
former existence of the horse in Ceylon. Mr. Paul Pieris was
good enough to go into the matter for me, and the following
excerpts from the Mahavxinsa are taken at his suggestion : —

1. {Mahawansa, ed. 1889, p. M) King Pandava sends
wedding presents (from Madura, South India) to Wijayo,
circ. 500 B.c. : —

The king Pandava having consulted with his ministers (decided
that) he should send him (Vijaya) his own daughter Vijaya ; and
for the retinue of that (king) one less than seven hundred
daughters of his nobility.

“ Those ” (said he) “among you who are willing to send your
daughters to renowned Sihala, send them. Let them be quickly
ranged before their doors, decorated in their best attire ” Having
bestowed many presents on their fathers, he, with their concur*
rence, assembled the maidens (at the palace), and causing his own
daughter to be decorated with every description of gold ornaments
befitting her sex and exalted rank, he bestowed on her, as dowry,
elephants, horses, chariots, and slaves. With eighteen officers of
state, together with X8evmty-%Y& menial servants §(6eing horst-

* In the history and ancient mythical lore of the Hindus many
references to the horse may be found ; take, for instance, Dasharatha s
horse “ sacrifice ” mentioned in the Rdmdyam. The hoi’se is often
referred to, and sometimes plays a conspicuous part in the mythology
of India.

t Since writing the above I have been informed of another place-
name of interest in the present connection : Mavittapuram (Skt. the
city of the abandoning horse) near Kankasanturai in the Northern
Province.

t Sixty.

§ Omit this. The other reading gives “ one thousand artisans trosn
the eighteen classes (or castes).”

? EQUTJS ZEYLA.NICUS.

265

keepers, clephant-heepers, and charioteers), the monarch despatched
these (maidens), bestowing presents on them. All these persons
having embarked in a vessel, from the circumstance of great
concourses of people landing there, the port (at which they
debarked) obtained the name Mahatittha.

2. {Page 63) Dewanan Piya Tisaa’s chariot was sent to
convey Mihindo to Anuradhapura : — *

In the morning the king sent his chariot. The charioteer, who
repaired {to Mihintale), said unto them (the theras), “Ascend
the carriage that we may proceed to the toum.” “ We will not ”
(replied the priests) “ use the chariot ; do thou return, we shall go
hereafter.” Having sent away the charioteer with this message,
these truly pious personages, who were endowed with the power
of working miracles, rising aloft into the air, alighted in the
eastern quarter of the 'city, on the site where the first dagoba
(Thuparama) was built.

3. {Page 91) A description of the breaking in of a horse by
a Sinhalese boy, circ, 200 b.c.

He, leaping on the charger, pre.ssed him into full speed in a
ring. (The animal) presented the appearance of one continuous
horse in every part of the circus. Poising himself by his own
weight on the back of the flying steed, the fearless youth
repeatedly untied and rebound his scarf.

4. {Page 41) An incident which shows that the Yakkos kept
horses : —

A certain yakkhini named Cetiyaf {tfie tvidow of Jvtindhara, a
yakkha^ who was killed in a battle fought at Sirivat^upura), having
the form and countenance of a mare, dwelt near the marsh of Turn
hariyangama, at the Dhumarakkha mountain. A certain })erson
in the prince’s retinue having seen this beautiful (creature), white,
with red legs, announced the circumstance to the prince, saying
“There is a mare of such a descrijition.” Tlie prince set out
with a rope to secure her.

Prom excerpt 4 we gather that the aboriginal, or at any rate
pre-Aryan, inhabitants of the Island kept horses.

The case of Ceylon, then, may be similar to that of America,
where the indigenous Equus became extinct, and was replaced
in historical times by a modern horse of Hindu or European
introduction.!

* Tissa reigned from 307 B.c. to 267 b.c.

t Who dwelt at Dhumarakklm mountain was wont to walk about
tlio marsh of Tumbariyangama in the shape of a mare.

X I am informed by Mr. Pieris that references to the horse are
scattered through Sinhalese literature from the earliest times of the
Portuguese period.

266

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA.

III.— Geological Aspect,

The coast of Ceylon is fringed with littoral deposits, which,
though geologically recent, are of remote antiquity when
regarded from the point of view of human affairs. They
consist of ancient unconsolidated beaches, sandstones, raised
coral reefs, leaf beds, submerged coastal flats, &c., and plateau
gravels. The last of these, as the present writer has been
able to show, contain stone tools belonging to a primitive stage
of culture. The coast deposits, which may in part be correlated
with some high-level gravels terracing the main river valleys,
indicate cycles of upheaval and depression, which have
influenced wide stretches of country. . .

There can be no doubt that Ceylon and India have been
connected by a laud bridge in the past. It is probable, too,
that this connection has been established and broken more
than once. Minor movements have also affected tho coast
at various times, and are doubtless still proceeding. There
is no evidence to show that they were violent ; indeed, they
are best regarded as discontinuous and slow. Land bridges
have, of course, influenced the distribution of animals and
plants, and by means of such connections came many of the
indigenous creatures of this country, not excepting man
himself. It is not possible within the limits of the present
paper, nor is it desirable, to consider the recent geological
history of Ceylon in detail. Suffice it to say that evidence
enough exists to show that the coastal belt is constantly
subject to slow fluctuations of level ; and that whereas the
most ancient movements which affected this country were
epeirogenic (or mountain forming) in type, those of more recent
date were orogenic (or continent forming), that is, general and
widespread in effect. It is hoped that at some future date
occasion will be found to publish an account of the later
geological history of Ceylon, and the influence of land move-
ments upon our flora and fauna ; meanwhile the reader must
be asked to take the above statement for granted, subject
to forthcoming proof.*

♦ The piost recent contribution, tu tluH subject is a paper
Mr. W. E. Wait, “ The Distribution of Birds in Ceylon and its R^Ma-
tion to recent Geological Changes in the Island .” — Spolia
Vol. X., Part XXXVI., December, IftU, pp. 1-32.

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

267

Fringing the western and southern coasts of this country
is a well-marked “reef" of sandstone containing the fossil
remains of existing species of mollusca. This rock is
exposed in many places^ generally between high- and low-
water levels, and will serve as a good geological datum.
It is often very hard, and is locally used as building stone.
The consolidation of this rock probably took place after
the loose sand was elevated above sea level ; the cement
is carbonate of lime, as was probably derived from marine
shells. It is an interesting fact that whereas the fossils belong
to recent species, they indicate a distribution somewhat
different from that which obtains to-day. At Chilaw, for
instance, Cyprcea is a very common fossil genus, but the only
Cyprmas which I was able to discover on the present beach at
Chilavv^ were derived from the sandstone. Cyprcea, however,
is common as a living form further north — on the western
shores of the Calpentjm Peninsula, for example. After eleva-
tion the sandstone was evidently depressed, for in many places
a sea-worn surface may be exposed under more modem
accumulations. The rock is of no great width, and passes
inland into unconsolidated sand, with which it is doubtless
contemporaneous. Both the sandstone and the soft sand are
overlain by other beach or swamp accumulations and blown
sand of later date. The hard rock was probably formed on
flats above high-water level, just as similar rocks are tending
to form at the present day {i.e,, on the eastern shores of the
Puttalam lake). That between the time of its consolidation
and the present day it was depressed below the surface of the
sea is evident, not only from the erosion of its surface, but also
from the fact that dead corals, now above water, may often
be seen adhering to it.

The earth movements chronicled by the coast? I sandstone
were of the nature of vertical uplifts and depressions ; but, as
may be expected over so large an area as the western and
southern coast belts, local tilting has occurred. From the
mouth of the Kelani-ganga to Chilaw the slightest perceptible
tilt to the west is to be seen, w'hile near Galle the dip is much
more apparent. On the whole, however, tilting is very slight,
for all practical purposes may be ignored. A glance
13 6(9)16

268

SPOLIA ZEYI.ANICA.

at the section (Plate II.) will show the relationship of the
sandstone to the beds above and below it. This section is
generalized, but, although compiled from many observations
taken along the coast, is especially designed to illustrate the
Wellawatta exposures.

Underneath a thin layer of blown sand is a deposit of
vegetable earth indicative of a land surface ; below this
a layer of vegetable earth and sea sand — a record of swamp
conditions ; below that again comes a thick layer of sea sand
with marine shells overlying a reef, or a stratum of coral
fragments. The coral rests upon the coarse gray sandy clay
which yielded the fossil teeth. The depth of the sandy clay
in the Wellawatta district is unknovm, as its bottom has never
been found ; it probably rests on the ancient crystalline rocks,
which are exposed in a cliff to the east of the generalized
section.

The gray sandy clay deposit is of special interest, inasmuch
as it exactly resembles the material which forms the coastal
fiats in the northern i)art of the Island. These represent, in
my opinion, accumulations which were fonned on shallow
sea floors away from the sorting influence of the waves. In
composition they are an admixture of sand and in ml with
small quartz pebbles and shells, generally unbroken. Most of
the molluscan species are small, bub fairly large shells are not
uncommon. The flats are only covered (if at all) by excep-
tional tides. They are for the most part dry. and support a
scanty vegetation of succulent and herba ceous plants. Thorny
scrub and ranawara bushes find a footing on any patches of
blown sand or ancient beach which may here and there be
found upon the surface. They form a fair grazing ground for
cattle, and footprints show that deer, pig, buffalo, leopard,
elephant, and other creatures of the neighbouring jungle
resort to these open spaces ; while, as I have observed in some
localities, jackal and hare seem particularly fond of them-
I have many times found the remains of wild creatures upoii
such ground as this, and here, as in many other places,
scattered teeth are of fairly common occurrence.

At the moment of writing my camp is pitched by just such
a flat as this (at Palavi, Northern Province), and as 1 have in

? EQTJUS ZBYLANICITS.

269

my possession a sample of the deposit from which the fossil
teeth were obtained, a comparison between it and the sediments
of the flat is easy. In the hand specimens the two would be
quite indistinguishable were it not for some difference in the
contained molluscan species, Minera logically the samples
are identical, but a slight difference exists between the pro-
portions of the minerals present, as may be expected from the
difference of local geology. The gray sandy clay from Wella-
w-atta, for example, is richer in heavy minerals (ilmenite,
zircon, &c.) than that of Palavi ; but the deposits of some
other flats south of Palavi yield concentrates comparable in
bulk with those of the Wellawatta stratum.

The gray sandy clay is a tj’pical flat deposit. It is
formed in quiescent places, and is characterLstic of large
sweeping hays ; it is commonly a.s.sociated w'ifch coral reefs.
The deposit is sufficiently definite and distinct in type to be
entitled to a special name ; it has no specific place in geological
nomenclature as far as I know, nor do I intend to christen it ;
it will be convenient, however, to call it by its Tamil equi-
valent kadu-suli The deposit composing the

coastal flats is a kxidu-sidi, so is the gray sandy clay from
Wellawatta. The striking similarity of the two sediments is
the strongest possible argument in favour of a common origin.
In all probability the Wellawatta kadu-suU was laid down
in a bay, the span of which was defined on the north by a
rocky headland, which now supjwrts the battery, and on the
south by a similar prominence — the site of the present Mount
Lavinia Hotel.

As w'e have seen, the coast of Ceylon is subject to fluctua-
tions of level. It is not possible to say with certainty whether
the land is stationary or sinking or rising at the present time ;

* The present day inud fiats nn’ almost oontined (on the western
coast of tlio Island ) to the sea -board of what may be called the Tamil
country {i.e., the ^’ortliein i*rovince and the northeni part of the
Xorth-Wesfcern Province}. The Tamils, however, seldom use the term
kadn-suli (sea mud), as siiH suffices for most varieties of clay and
•dush. Curiously enough the Sinhalese have a saying in which ‘‘ sea
mud ” (mude-tnada) is used in the exemplary sense for a thing unheard
of : ilOiQ)® cfooftos rodiS i)«i Just

3-s one needs stars from heaven and mud from tlw soa to cure a fire -fly s
hite.”

270

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

but some curious hydrographical phenomena, the facts of
subterranean erosion, the rapid denudation of the coast, and
the abrupt ending of shallow platforms under the sea suggest
that the land is being slowly submerged. If such is the case,
and if depression continues for a sufficiently lengthy period,
fresh sediment will be distribvited over the coastal belt ; fresh
hadu-suli may be deposited upon the flats, and the bones
and teeth of animals lying on the ground will be covered by
deposits similar to those on which they rest. So will these
accumulations grow till a change of conditions (the result of
depth attained or some other circumstance) necessitates a
change of material precipitated. Thus, a bed of clay may be
covered by a layer of sand, or coral reef submerged in mud.

In the light of these considerations we may interpret the
exposures of the Wellawatta trench, but before doing so it
will be as well to consider the section in general (Plate II.).
The points A, B, C, and D vary considerably in relative
position along the coast. A is the modern shore line, B is
the edge of the coastal plane, C is the edge of an ancient beach,
and D is the junction of the coastal plane with the Archaean
crystalline rocks which form the main mass of the Island.

In places where coastal erosion is rapid (southern part of
the Western Province and Southern Province) A, may coincide
with one or more of the other points. In many localities in
the south (Doiidra Head, for example) all four are coincident.
Near Wellawatta A and B arc close together, C is about a
quarter of a mile from B, while D is situated some considerable
distance inland. When A, B, 0, and D coincide little or no
evidence of land movements Is observable, the best conditions
for geological observations arc obtained when all four points
are well separated. A, B, C, and D are situated on shore
lines.

Besides the deposits of the Wellawatta section enumerated
in the Introduction, two others are to be considered. The
first of these is the plateau gravel which caps the low hills in
various localities ; the second is an ancient beach which
occurs between points C and D.

The plateau gravel was deposited before the minor configii*
rations of the solid land were developed, and the relationship

? EQFUS ZEYLANICUS.

271

of the ancient and modern beaches with the deposits below
them to the inlets of the coast shows these sediments to be
younger than the plateau gravel. Moreover, since the gravel
has yielded Stone age relics, it must be inferred that the
coastal deposits have accumulated during the human period,
that is to say, within (? Pliocene), Pleistocene, and Holocene
times.*

From a comparison of the kadu-suU of the northern flats
with buried teeth-yielding deposit exposed at Wellawatta,
one may reasonably infer that the creature of which the
relics once formed part, met its death, as many others have
subsequently done, on the open plains by the ocean. Since
that time the coast has been depressed in relation to the sea
to a depth of over 20 feet. There can be no doubt that this
did not take place during the European occupation of the
Island, for the sandstone, Avhich we have taken as our geo-
logical datum, is certainly more recent than the gray sandy
clay, and was used by the Portuguese and Dutch in the con-
struction of their buildings. Nor is it likely to have occurred
during any period of the Sinhalese occupation, for, although
minor oscillations may be inferred from some legends in the
Mahawansa,^ no depression of anything like 20 feet can
be admitted within the historical period, inasmuch as the

* Tho tei-tirtry periods arranged in a de.scending onler of antiquity
read as follows : — Holocene ; Pleistocene ; Pliocene ; Miocene ; OligO'
cene ; Eocene. The uonienclatnro refers to the percentage of certain
living species present. Tho Holocene period, in which we are now
living, begins with the newer Stone age, and is ciiaracterized by an
almost entire absence of extinct species.

t A minor jnovement or, more probably, an abnormal wave like
that of 1907, is recorded in tho ()Vijesinhas translation,

1889, Part II., p. 84) as follows : —

^ T ism, the suwreign of Kalydni, had a brother named Ltiiya, who,
terrified at the resentment borno to him on the king s detection of his
criminal intercourse with the queen, fled from thence. This prince,
called Uttiya, from his grandfather (king of Anuradhapura), establislied
himself in another part of the country (near tho sea). From that
cimumstance, that division was called by his name. The said prince,
entrusting a secret letter to a man disguised in the garb of a priest,
despatched him to the queen. (Tho messenger) repairing thither,
stationed himself at tho palace gate ; and as tlip sanctified chief thera
daily attended the palace for his repast, he also unobserved entered
(with that chief priest’s retinue) the royal apartment. After having

^ “ Now there was a sovereign of KalyAni called Tissa. a Kshatriyo,
^’hoso brother Uttiya, terrified,” &c.

272

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

stupendous effects gradually arising from such a movement
could hardly fail to lind recognition again and again in
early writings unless the movement was extremely local.

All the evidence goes to show that the more recent oscilla-
tions of Ceylon have been of a widespread character. The
distribution of the sandstone, already briefly discussed, is a
case in point. A depression of 10 feet, if at all general, w'ould
■submerge hundreds of thousands of acres ; while a drop of
20 feet would make an enormous difference to the country.
Since, however, such depression has occurred within the
human period, one may safely conclude that the event belonged
to pre -historic days, nor can its protracted nature be reasonably
questioned. At any rate, it is certain, from geological evidence,
that the sinking of the ancient coastal flat was far from
cataclysmic, and the present writer ventures to think tliat
the few' thousand years which have elapsed since civilization
first found its way to this Island are insufficient for the com-
pletion of a movement — or series of movemeuts — which the
geology of the coast records.

But there is time enough and to spare for these happenings
within the human period ” of Ceylon, for it can be shown
that early man existed in the country more or less contem-
poraneously with the Pa 1*0 lit hie peojde of Europe, and
there is nothing extravagant in the statement that man
was probably living in Ceylon a hundred thousand years ago.

tukfji his repusL with tiu.’ them, oti the king's leaving the upartinojit i]i
uttcndance (on the thera), this disguised messenger catching (at last)
the eye of the queen, let the letter drop on the ground. By the noise
(of its fall) the king's (attention) was arm.sted. Opening it and discover-
ing the object of the communication, the monarch misled (into tJie
belief of the chief priest's participation in the intrigue), became enraged
with the thdra ; and in his fury putting both the th6ra and the messenger
to death, ca^st their bodies into the sea. The d^vatds, Ho expiate (this
impiety), submerged that province by the overflow of the ocean. This
ruler of the land (to appease the d^vatas of the ocean) quickly placing
^kia own lovely clauyhUo' Suddhadevi in a golden vessel, and inscribing
on it “ a royal maiden,'' at that very place launched her forth into the
ocean. The king (of Mahdgama) Kdkavanna raised to the dignity of
his quecn-coiLsort her who was thus cast on shore *on hia dominions.
Hence (from the circumstance of her being cast on shore near a vihara).
her appellation of Vihdra D^vi.

* “ incensed at.”

® his daughter Devi, a princess of great beauty and purity.’*

* ” near the Lanka vihara.”

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

273

The geological interpretation of the Wellawatta sections
appears as follows : —

On a pre-historic flat bordering the sea an indigenous
horse met its death.* Subsequent slow depression of the land
resulted in the burial of such organic remains as might be
strewn upon the surface of the flat, under deposits akin to
those upon which they were resting. The flat, which partly
filled a large bay (see p. 269), was hounded oti the west by a
coral reef. As the land sank the reef grew, till the quiet
conditions which allowed of coral growth and the accumulation
of kadu-suli no longer obtained. Possibly an ancient reef or
rock-bar out at sea, serving in times of greater elevation
to protect the shore from the onslaught of the waves,
was now too far submerged to function as a break-
water. Whatever the cause may have been, conditions
changed; the coral reef w'as denuded, and fragments of the
mass were strewn across the surface of the kadu-suli. The
land continued to sink, and sand wa.s deposited seawards of
the reef, above it, and above the gray sandy clay, Then a
period of elevation set in and continued till the top of the
sand appeared above sea level. Some of the upper layers
were afterwards consolidated by lime -charged waters, and
partially, perhaps, by efllorcscence from the coral below,
slight depression again took place, and swamps (to which the
vegetable earth and sand bears testimony) appeared along
the coast. Depression then continued, and marine deposits
crept further irdand. While the hardened sandstone out at
sea supported coral growth (see p. 267), at length the down-
ward movement was complete and the land rose again in a
slow discontinuous way, thus giving rise to shore lines C, B,
and A. When the coast had extended to B, swamps appeared
along the plain, and were afterwards replaced by jungle. The
present beach and blown sand are the youngest deposits in
the series. In a sense the vegetable earth is their contem-
porary ; it should be noted, however, that this bed has a
double history, for, although organic matter accumulates
pari pxssu with the dunes, and has been accumulating since

Indigenous for reasons set forth ujidor the licadiag of Paheonto-
logical Evidence.

274

SPOLIA ZEYLA.NIOA.

the beginning of the jungle phase, the stratum itself, as such,
is older ; it is, as it were, a reservoir for decaying plants.
All fresh material added is younger (and if it falls upon the
surface is separable from the mass) ; but much of the organic
contribution takes the form of decaying roots, which penetrate
and add to a bed which is older than the ancient beach at C,

Such, then, appears to be the history of the more recent
•deposits of the coast. There is nothmg remarkable in this
succession of movements ; a sinxiliar story may be read round
almost every coast line of the world — a fact which has been
more or less realized ever since the publication of Leopold von
Buch’s classical researches on the Baltic and elsewhere.*

IV. — Pal/Eontolooical Evidence.

If the Wellawatta home is to be considered as a contem-
porary of early mai\, certain structural differences may be
expected between it and the modern Equus caballus, but I
am not aware that any great difference necessarily exists.
The question arises, too, Was the horse introduced by early
man from India, or was it part of the indigenous fauna of
Ceylon ? This is a question to which no definite answer can
be given ; but it seems unlikely that Stone age tribes would
have deliberately brought the creature to this country, for
the domestication of the horse by so primitive a people as
that announced by the plateau antefacts must be considered
doubtful. In the absence of evidence to the contrary one
must assume that horses reached the Island, as the elephants
and other large mammalia did, of their own accord by means
of a land connection. That pre -historic Ceylon did know
the horse is probable, as we have seen, from the Mahamnsa
(excerpt 4).

It has been suggested that the discovery of a couple of
teeth is not enough to establish the existence of ancient horses
in the Island ; but the objection is hardly valid, for although
there can be no doubt that elephants have inhabited the
forests since pre-historic days, no well-authenticated discovery
of their fossil remains has been recorded, despite the fact that
the officers of the Mineral Survey have paid special attention

* “ Boise durch Norwegen und Lapland.” 1810,

1 BQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

275

to alluvial deposits ever since the inauguration of the Depart-
ment in 1903. The same remark applies to other m,amm,alian
relics which might be expected to occur in river gravels and
valley silt. The fact is that conditions are not conducive to
the preservation of bones.*

There is no obvious reason why horses should not have
found their way to Ceylon in Pliocene or Pleistocene times,
for as Dr. Smith Woodward says : “ The earliest remains of
one-toed horses hitherto discovered occur in the lower Pliocene
Siwalik Formation of India ; ’’f and on the same authority
we learn that horses appeared in Europe during upper Pliocene
and in America during Pleistocene times.J Quite recently
equine remains have been obtained from some later tertiary
beds of China.

By the kindness of Mr. Sturgess, I have been able to compare
the Wellawatta teeth with those of the modern horse. I have
also been able to compare the grinding tooth with a photograph
and description of the upper fourth premolar of a new fossil
species from Ho-nan (China), recently published by Hikoshi-
chiro Matsu moto in the Science Reports of the Tohoku
Imperial University, Sendai, Japan. § Specific distinctions
between ancient horses are liable to raise vexed questions,
for “ Jfoiie of these species, old world or new% are easily to be
• separated from JE. caballvs, but many names have been given
to them. It is, of course, perfectly conceivable that they
may have differed among themselves, as much as do the
existing zebras and asses, the separation of which would be
hardly possible did we know their bones only.’ |j
Woodward, speaking of Pleistocene horses, remarks : A
large proportion of the remains can scarcely be distinguished
from the corresponding parts of the existing E. caballus”^

* If I recollect rightly, however, Dr. Kelaart somewhere speaks of
elephant remains in the loaf beds of the Getalieta Valley. I do not
know on what authority,

t “ A Guide to the Fossil Maniinals and Birds ’ British

.Museum. London, 1904, p. 24.
t loc. cit.

& Second Series (Geology), Vol. Ill, No. I., pp. 29, 30.

11 Beddard, F. E. : ** Mammalia.'' Cambridge Natural History.
Mol. X., 1902, p. 240.

11“ Outlines of Vertebrate Palwontology.” Loudon. 1898, p. 338.

U fi(9)D)

276

SPOLIA ZEYLA^ilCA.

Nevertheless, teeth are generally considered a fairly safe
guide, and the Japanese author above named does not
hesitate to found a new species [E. leptostylus) upon some
peculiarities of dental structure.

Hikoshichiro Matsumoto says on page 2 of his paper : —
“The Pliocene horses of the old world, such as E. stenom,
E, qmggoides, and E. sivalensis, are characterized by the very
small anterior inner pillar and the more or less Hipparwi-Mkc'
plication of the enamel of the upper premolars and molars, while
the majority of the large Pleistocene horses, such as E. spdoRuHf
E. ferus, E, moshachensis, E. germanicus, E. oheli, as well as
‘ jB, cahallu^' foss.’ of auct,, &e., are characterized by the large
and long anterior inner pillar and the less complex plication of
the enamel of the same. Between these two groups I distinguisli
two lines of intermediation. The first, being represented by E.
plicidens and E. sussenhornensis, has the premolars and molars,
of which the anterior inner pillar is large and short, and the
plication of the enamel is very complex and rather Hippariun-
like. The second, being represented by Boule/s ‘ E. cf. stenosw ’f
and the present species, has premolars and molars of which the
anterior inner pillar is small and short and the plication of the
enamel is rather simple,”

Let us examine the Wellawatta molar iu the light of these
remarks with a view to determining where it may be placed
in the above scheme cf classification.

The tooth is one that belonged to a full-grown horse, and
is well worn at the grinding surface. It is quite umnineralized,
but has lost its organic content, as may be shown by its.
adhesiveness to a moistened surface — the tip of one’s tongue,
say. It is short and remarkably squarish in section ; its
w'eight is 49‘72 grammes. The canine, which calls for no

♦ Speaking of the lake.s (or ciCFicentb) ubwervable in the teeth of tlie
Eqr/idie, Professor Flower says (“ The Hoi'se,” London, 1891, p. 12(1);
'' The sinuosities of their enamel margins*, which are soinetimes ex-
tremely complex, present great variations in different species, as also
do the indentation in the edges of the sinus which runs fon\-ard from
the inner side of tooth between the two internal columns, the fonii of
the folds at the bottom of which constitutes the only easily rccognizal)ie
distinction between the molar teeth of the common horse and the ass.
This distinction which I have been able to observe through the kindness
of Mr. J. D. Brown, C.C.S. — who in his interest in the matter procured
for me the skull of a donkey — is as follows ;• — The spur which projoeb
into the bay between the two inner pillars (internal columns) is hardly
represented at all, while the inlet immediately posterior to the spur
runs up to meet the anterior crescent. (Compare with this stat-ement
character 6 of the table and diagram.) . unn

t Les Chevaux FobsiIch de Grottes de Grimaldi. Ann. Ph 1„ V .. i ■
p. 113, text fig. I.

?EQtriTS ZEYLANICDS,

277

further remark save that its size {74 mm. outside curve,

13 mm. widest part, and 42 mm. greatest circumference)
declares its possessor to have been a stallion, weighs 8’ 19
grammes.* When due allowance is made for unequal wear,
certain peculiarities, more or less distinctive of the Wellawatta
molar, are to be noted ; these, together with the corresponding
characters of E. kptosiylus and E. mhalbis, are set forth in
tabular form below.

The first ten characters of the upper left P. M. 4 of E.
kptostylus are taken from Hikoshichiro Matsumoto’s descrip-
tion, while the others under the same heading are to be
observed in the plate accompanying the .same publication. In
Plate I. of this paper the more important structures of the
teeth are drawn to a magnification of two diameters.

In no instance is there complete agreement betweeii the
three teeth.

With regard to one character (16), (B) and (C) are alike in
their difference from (A) ; in three characters (1, 2, and 7)
(B) approaches (C) more closely than it does (A) ; in four
characters (4, 5, 6, and 12) (B) is more or less intermediate
between (A) and (C) ; in six characters (3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 15)
(B) shows more resemblance to (A) than to (C) ; while in two
characters (13 and 14) (B) is peculiar.

The upper left last premolar of E. leptostyhs is more akin
in structure to the finst upper left molar of E. cohallus than
it is to its homologue in the latter specie.s, inasmuch as last
upper left premolar of the modern horse is longer in proportion
to its width and has more marked and more complicated
plications than either the corresponding tooth of E. leptostyhs
or its own first molar. On the other hand, the Welhuvatta
cheek tooth resembles the collateral grinder of E. cahallus
more closely than it docs any other tooth of the modern
iiorsc. What degree of correspondence exists between the
upper left first molar of E, kptosiylus and the upper left first
molar of E. cahallus we do not know, but we see from analogy
that the plications of the former were simpler than those of

* One of the minor difficulties of the “ cavern ” theory to
<5xplain how two teeth of such very dift’erent size and weight should
bavo remained together during the movements cf the mud stream.

l;3 6(9)16

278

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

the latter. Moreover, we know from observations that the
same general statement holds good where we substitute the
Wellawatta horse for E, hftosiylus. But the Wellawatta
horse cannot be placed in either of Hikoshichiro Matsumoto’s
lines of intermediation ; for this very simplicity which allies
it with line 2 separates it from line 1, while the long and
comparatively large anterior inner column excludes it from
.both,* it obviously belongs to the group of “ Pleistocene
horses/’ as might be expected from the geological evidence.

Geological evidence alone, however, would be incapable,
in the present instance, of proving the teeth any more recent
than Pliocene ; for, while a strong presumption exists in
fav our of a Pleistocene date, the fact that the relics are younger
than the implements of the plateau gravels cannot, while the
antiquity of man is disputed, be held to preclude the possibility
of a greater age.t

* ® — { ONCLIISIOX .

The Wellawatta teeth, when considered in relation to the
historical, geological, and palaeontological evidence bearing
upon them, must he taken to indicate the existence of horses
in Ceylon during pre-historic days. The individual proclaimed
by these relics exhibits the characters of a group of Pleistocene
horses, while a number of features (simplicity of the crescents,
narrowness of the anterior inner column, &o.) serve to
distinguish it from the modern E. cahalluH. Whether it is
sufficiently distinct from the present day horse on the one
hand, or from, certain extinct species on the other, to entitle
it to a specific name of its o\v n, must he left to the decision of
Naturalists who possess a more intimate knowledge of the
palaeontology of th(5 horse, and are more fortunately placed
with regard to recent literature than the present writer.

* Tlw quotient o£ ‘‘ length of pillar ’’ int(j " length of tooth ’’ in the
three case<^ is as follows : — A = 2 ' 90, It — 2 ■ 37 nearly, C = 2' 28 iieady-

■f ]}r. Fritz Nootling, in a paper On the Occurrence of Chipped (?)
Flints in the Upper Miocene of Ihirma ” (Rec. Oeol. Survey, JndiiV)
Vol. XXVXI., Part 3. 1894, pp. 101 103), records some flaked stones
W'hich have been recognized by some authorities us tho handiwork of
man. Since tlie publication of his paper, Dr. Nootling has foiinct
reason to regard tho beds containing tlie supposed antofacts as old^
Pliocene ; and it may be noted that savants are not wantirg who
maintain that Pliocene man in Europe is a proved fact. Some coiitro-
versial papers conceniiiig Dr. Noetling’s discovery wdll be found m
“ Natural Science ” and elsewhere.

? EQUUS ZRYLAMCaS.

Comparative Table of the more important Characters of the upper
and the upper left M. 1 . of (B) the Wellawatta Horse, and {<

Parts.

Character

No.

Folds

Pillars <

T)

(and

8

9

Crescents <

11

12

i;i

16

(A) £? lepto6tylus (upper left P. M. 4).

i The anterior middle and outer folds am well develojK'd N^ot quit
^ and wide, each having a distinct vertical nietltaii
furrow

Anterior inner pillar vei-y small and short, iTica,siirer, Longer
10 inm. in length and 5 inin, in widtli at the grinding length
surface (A).

width

Anterior inner pillar ia not rounded, hut irregularly Di-stinot
triangular, with concave inner side in section aide

Posterior inner pillar also very small and short, witlr liather
perfectly rounded posterior border well

border

i Neither of the pillars reaches the boundary of the tooth Much as
proper ; the bays just anterior to the anterioi terior
i pillar arid posterior to the posterior pillar yielding smallei

j a comparatively large surface for cement. than, ii

’ Simple spur projects into bav between two inner As in
pillars ' »

Anterior border of anterior cn^oejit has one con- t^ne con
spicnous fold onevei

tuated
the toe

Posterior border of anterior crescent has one con- Double b
apicuous double fold and two rather feeble ones uous,

one fa
and on

Anterior border of posterior crescent has one very As in (A)
conspicuous and two very feeble folds

Posterior border of posterior crescent has one rather One fairlj
conspicuous single fold (the additional fold which fold
appears in the original photograpli and in thCi
diagram is presumably only apparejit. and is due tol
the foresfiortening of a worji surface)

Anterior horn of anterior crescent is wide and squarish. M ide am
but not angular, it is directed outwar

Posterior horn, of anterior crescent tending to pointed:

Anterior horn of posterior croscejit is club-shaped and
laterally directed. The apex ia anterior.

Posterior horn of posterior crescent points tnitwards
and backwards

Bay betw’een anterior and po.sterior inner pillaj^
widena towards its mouth

Bay anterior to anterior inner pillar is angular

ilnch as i
Crescentr
ia poste
Voints lat

As in (A),

Bay is roi

iVotf. — The nuinbei-s in column 2 cori’Cspond with the m

NOTES.

281

NOTES.

Cassia mdosa tree defoliated by caterpillars of Catopsilia
pomona, Fabr.— Having heard that caterpillars were devouring
the foliage of certain trees in the Victoria Park, I decided to
collect specimens and, if possible, to take a photograph of the
affected tree. The ground all round the tree wa.s one mass
of struggling green. Perched on all the adjoining branches
were crews {Corvus splendens) which were devouring the
caterpillars wholesale, and except for them much damage
would have been caused. I collected some of the caterpillars
and bred them in captivity. They were full growm, and
pupated in three days, the biitterllies were the ordinary
Catopsilia pornona^ Fabr. The tree adjoining the one which
was eaten was in blossom and of the same family, a few
branches showed signs of the pest, but the gardener timely
intercepted the spread of them, I luiderstand that aU this
damage was caused by the caterpillars to the tree in tw'o day.s.

Colombo, May, 1910. 0. iSOL-OMONS

A similar incident to the one described by Mr. Solomons
took place at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Peradeniya this
year. The same thing has happened for several years in
succession, 1 understand, on practically the same date.
Unfortunately, when my attention w-as drawn to the outbreak,
the caterpillars were so well grown that nothing could be done
to save the trees. Thousands of the caterpillars were
ascending and descending the trunks and crawling about the
grass and neighbouring bushes. No birds were observed to
be eating them this year, but in the 1914 outbreak king crowds
{Dicrunis kucopygialis, Blyth) wore seen feeding on the
caterpillars botii (^the ground and on the trees, and crows
fed eagerly on the pupte, <loing, in fact, some damage to the
trees by breaking six^HJbranches, &c., to get at them.

282

SPOLIA ZEYLAMCA,

Strange to say, the only trees seriously attacked were those
bordering the Palmyra Avenue, others in private gardens
near by not being touched apparently. The outbreak does
not appear to have done any serious damage to the affected
trees, however, as they are coming into new leaf and flowering
vigorously now.

Peradeniya, May 22. 1916. C4. M. HENRY.

Flight of Brand mUopasa — A very unusual sight attracted
my attention whilst out collecting Cicadas. The lamp on the
gate leading t( the Museum was besieged by what I at first
thought to bo a swarm of bees, but on closer inspection they
proved to be moths [Brand cdllopasd, Wlk.). The lamp
was covered with the moths which were about ten deep. The
next morning I found every one had flown away.

Colombo, May. 1916. C. C. SOLOMONS.

Nacaduba dana. He Niccville. — This butterfly is lunv to the
Ceylon lists. It is allied to X. ardote^s, but ean at once be
distinguished by —

(1) Much lighter blue on upperside.

(2) Basal pair of strigse on underside of fore wing not

produced below median vein.

(3) Two minute equal -sized black spots, one each in inter-

spaces (1) and (2) of the underside of the hindwing.

The last is the most useful distinctioti, as all the other
Nacaduba of Ceylon have a Uirge. black spot in ii]tersi)aco (2).

Mr. Mackwood has compared it with specimens of N. dann
from Burma and finds it identical.

The male is found in the Haldummulla district settled
on wet roads, chiefly in April and November. The female is
very rare.

Haldummulla, April 6, 1916.

W. ORMISTONT

NOTES.

283

feriasrotuTidulis. — Moore in his “Lepidopterg of Ceylon” dcs
ciibes and figures this species. Subsequentauthors have treated
it as a variety of Terms silhekina, partly, I believe, because
they have never seen a specimen, and partly owing to Moore's
reputation for splitting the butterflies into unnecessary species.

Mr. Mackwood, who is by far our greatest authority on the
subject, has for many years insisted on its specific rank.

I saw jiiy first specimens in February last, when I was
lucky enough to catch one in the Kottawa forest, near Galle.
Mr. Mackwood gave me another specimen from Ratnapura,
and I found one in the Museum collection from Peradeniya
labelled Teria silhetuna.

I give a short description ;~

Male (I have not examined a female yet). -Wings short and
more rounded than in silhtiam or hecabe, hence the name
rotundalis,

• Upperside : Colour a very briqht citron-yellow. Black
border very similar to 7^, silhetana, but of a far more intense
black. Not sharply angulatcd on vein 7 as in T. andersoni.

Lower Wing ; Narrow terminal border intense black, broader
anteriorly, extended along veins near apex as a fine streak.

Underside : Can be distinguished at once from T. silhetana
by having only one streak in cell, whereas silhetam has
invariably three. Narrow black border to upper wing, extended
as a triangular black patch down each vein fi’om 4 to 11. In
place of the pre-apical red [)atch in hccabe and silheiana,
there is a slight dusting of intense black scales.

Lower Wing : Markings as in silhetana. but narrow black
border from vein 7 to tornus, slightly thickened at end of
each vein. General colour of underside quite as bright as
upper, not paler as in T. nrulersoni.

Sexual mark similar to silhetana.

Thorax and abdomen much blacker above than in any other
Ceylon Terias ; yellow below. Antennae longer in proportion
to size than in silhetarm.

Habits : So far as is known is found in the forests of the
wettest zone. The Peradeniya specimen is probably an
accidental visitor.

Haldummulla, April 6, 1916.

W. ORMISTON.

284

SPOLTA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY.

Fourteenth General Meeting.

The Fourteenth General Meeting of the Society was lield
in the Colombo Museum library on October 20, 1915, with
Dr. A, Nell in the Chair.

Dr. Pearson gave a few notes on the colouration of animals,
after which Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc, delivered a lecture

on “ Social Life among Ants."'

Fifteenth General Meeting.

The Fifteenth General Meeting of the Society was h(>ld in
the Colombo Museum Library on December 17, 1915, with
Dr. Joseph Pearson in the Chair.

The Chairman propost-d alterations to rule 9. Then* were two
alterations of the same rule, and he combined both in one
resolution, (a) Instead of tlie first sentence, read “The suh*
acription to the Society shall be Ks. 5 [)er annum, which will fall
due on January 1 of eacli year/’ (6) Instead of last sentence,
read “ In the case of new members, tlu* suV)Scri[)tion will fall due
on the date of election, and such election will not be continned
until the first annual subscription or life-membership subscription
is paid.”

The Ven. the Arclideacon said lu! \inderstood tin* alterations
proposed were the raising of the subscription from Rs, 3 to Ks. 5,
and in the case of new members their subscrij)tions fall due on
the date of election. Was the Committee authorized to coidirni
the election ? The Cheirjnan said in future, if the ])roposed rule
was adopted, no elected member would be considered a mcmhei'
of the Society until h(^ had paid his subscription. The siibscriie
tion of Ks. 3 was only a temporary measure, as they did not
know exactly how the finance of the Society would stand. K<‘
thought that Ks. 5 j)er annum would meet the case. Eighty-
seven members who bad been elected bad not paid their tu'st
subscription. Under the proposed ruh* it would be easy for
members to forward cheque for Ks. 10, subscription for
years.

Mr. Mac ready seconded the proposition.

CEYLON NATURAL HTSTORY SOCIETY. 285

Mr. Holsingor proposed an amendment that the two parts of
the resolution be taken separately.

The Ven. the Archdeacon seconded. Carried.

The Ven. the Archdeacon suggested a verbal alteration in the
second part of the Chairman’s resolution. Instead of the words
“will not be confirmed ” he suggested the words will nut be
complete.”

Mr. C. T. Symons seconded.

The two proposals embodying the amendments were put to the
meeting and carried.

The Chairman next proposed new rule for foreign members as
follows ; —

Non-residents of the Island who are distinguished men of
science, and who have made important researches in Natural
History, particularly of Ceylon and the surrounding seas, may be
elected as foreign members without payment of fee or subscription.
Such foreign members will have all the privileges of an ordinary
member, except that they cannot .serve on the Council of the
Society, Ordinary members of the Society wHIl be eligible for
election as foreign members after having given u]3 residence
iji Ceylon, but no part of a life -member’s subscription will be
refunded.

The Ven. the Archdeacon seconded. Carried.

Mr. C. T. Symons then read a paper on “ TJie Habits of some
(iregarious Shore Crabs.” The Chairman having offered some
remarks on the Paper, next explained a few' exhibits which were
put on view.

Sixteenth General Meeting.

The Sixteenth General Meeting of the Soeietj" was lield in the
Colombo Museum Library on January 28, 11)1 G, His Excellency
ilr. K. E, Stubbs presided.

Dr, W. J. Dakin, Professor of Biology. Cni\ ersity of Western
Australia, delivered a lecture, illustrated by lantern slides, on
“Whaling in Australian W’^aters.” Dr. Pearson offered a few
comments.

Seventeenth General Meeting.

The Seventeenth (Fourth Anniversary) General Meeting of the
Society was held in the Colombo Museum Library on March 28,
1916, at 5. 15 P.M., with Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

The report of the Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers and the
accounts for the past year were adopted and pa.ssed unanimously.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. J. F. Sihbald for kindly
auditing the accounts.

2S6

SPOUA. ZEYLANICA,

The following were elected as Office-bearers for 1916 : —
Patron.

His Excellency Sir John Anderson, G.C.M.G*, K.C.B.
President.

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G,, F.Z.S.
Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq. Dr. A. Nell, M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Sir S. D. Bandaranaike, Kt., Dr. Joseph Pearson, D.Sc.,
C.M.G, F.K.S.E., F.L.S.

Council.

T. Fetch, Esq., B.A., B.Se. The Hon. Mr. Harry Creasy.

0. S. Wick war, Esq. The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc.

The Veil, the Archdeacon of C. F. S. Baker, Esq.

Colombo.

Joint Honorary Secretaries atid Treasurers.

W. A. Cave, Esq. 1 C, T. Symons, Esq., B.A.,

1 F.H.G.S.

The following amendments to rule 2 1 relating to the election of
foreign members was carried unanimously. The rule will now
read

Non-residents of the Island who are distinguislied men of
science, and who have made important researches in Natural
History, particularly of Ceylon and the surrounding seas, may be
elected on the recommendation of the Council as foreign members
without payment of fee or subscription, Such foreign members
will have all the privileges of an ordinary member, except that
they cannot serve on the Council of the Society. Ordinary
members of the Society w'ill be eligible for election as foreign
members after having given up residence in Ceylon, but no part
of a life-member’s subscription will be refunded (words jtaliciz5d
constituting the amendment).

Under rule 21 the following foreign members were then
elected ; —

E. E. Green, Esq., late Govermnent Entomologist.

Dr. A. Willey, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, McGill University.
Montreal.

Dr. J. C. Willis, late Director of Royal Botanic Gardens,
Peradeniya.

Dr. N. Annandale, Superintendent, Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Professor Herd man, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University oi
Liverpool.

Professor J. Stanley Gardiner, F.H.S., Professor of Zoology.
University of Cambridge.

Dr. Pearson then gave a lecture on the subject of Jelly Fislies.
and several specimeim were exhibited.

CEYLON Water birds.

287

NOTES ON CEYLON WATER BIRDS,
Part II.

By W. E. Wait, M.A., M.B.O.U.
[With a Plate.)

^I^HE present paper is the second instalment of the rough
^ draft for the handbook on the birds of Ceylon. It
comprises the remainder of the water birds, including the
Pelicans, Cormorants, and allied species ; the Ibises, Storks,
and Herons ; the Flamingoes ; the Geese, Ducks, and Grebes.

Order STEGANOPODES.

Pelicans., Cor7n.oranU,

Birds of the present order are readily distinguished by
having all four toes webbed, the hallux or hind toe, which is
long, being turned inwards and forwards and connected with
the three front toes. In their structure the Steganopodes
show a connection with the birds of prey, and differ widely
from the Gulls and Waders. Their nestlings when hatched
are helpless, and remain for some time iiudowiiy plumage,
(luring which stage they are fed by their pciients.

Of the five families into which the order is divided, four
contam but a single genus ; the fifth consists of two genera,
each raised to the rank of a sub-family. These five families
differ considerably in outward appearance, but all are fish
feeders. The Pelicans and Cormorants are found equally on
inland waters and round the coast ; the Frigate Birds, Gaiinets,
and Tropic Birds are marine, and mainly oceanic.

2 (>( 7)17

288

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The families may be differentiated as follows : —

A. — Tail rounded ; bill long, flattened, and provided under-

neath with an enormous pouch.

Pelecanidse (Pelicans).

B. — ^Tail forked ; the web between the toes deeply scalloped ;

bill straight and sharply hooked at the tip.

Fregatidx (Frigate Birds),

C. — ^Tail rounded, the feathers very stiff ; bill slender, either

hooked or pointed ; plumage mainly black.

Phalacrocoracidss (Cormorants and Darters).

D. — Tail long and wedge-shaped ; bill stout and pointed ;

nostrils almost invisible externally.

Sulidas (Gannets).

E. — Tail long, the central feathers greatly exceeding the

rest ; bill stout and pointed, the nostrils plainly

visible.

PhdHhontidga (Tropic Birds).

Family PELECANiDiE.

Genus Pelecanus.

Pelicans.

The Pelicans are a familiar group of large birds with
enormous bills, which are adapted for fishing. The upper
mandible is very long and flattened, and terminates in a stroug
“ dertrum,” or nail, at the tip. At each side, running down
the length of the bill, there is a narrow groove from the
nostrils, whfch are very small and placed at the base. The
lower mandible is a mere flexible pointed arch forming a rim
to the large pouch of naked skin, which is used as a net to
scoop up fish. The wings are long and ample. Pelicans are
found in warm climates all round the world, frequenting
marshes, rivers, lagoons, or sometimes the sea. They can
both fly and swim well, but do not dive, and are bad walkers,
not often seen on land. Only one species is found in Ceylon.

CEYLON WATEE BIEDS.

289

Pelbcanus philippensis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 335).

Pblbcanus philippinbnsis (Legge, p. 1198).

The Spotted-billed Pelican.

Description. — Breeding plumage : mainly white, the feathers
of the crown and neck short and rather fluffy, with dark bases ;
there is a slight crest and a sort of mane, brownish in colour,
down the hind-neck ; the scapulars and feathers of the wing
coverts and upper tail coverts have black shafts ; the lower
back, flanks, vent, and lower tail coverts are tinged vinaceous
pink. The primaries and primary coverts are dark brown ;
outer half of secondaries brown ; tail lighter brown, the
feathers white at the base.

Adults out of breeding plumage and immature birds lack
the rosy tint on the lower back, flanks, and under parts. The
feathers of the head and neck are white with black bases ;
wings and tail brown ; under parts whitish-brown. The lesser
whig coverts are short, instead of being long and pointed.

Bill flesh-coloured, with bluish spots on the sides of the
upper mandible ; pouch dull purple with blue-black markings ;
iris pale yellow or almost white ; legs and feet dark brown.

Length 57 ; wing 22 ; tail 8 ; tarsus 3 • 5 ; hill from gape
14 ; females slightly smaller.

Distribution. — Found wherever there are suitable sheets of
water throughout the north and east of the Island as far
south as Hatiibantota. Occurs in similar places all over India,
Burma, and the East.

Habits. — This species is found often in large flocks on
brackish lagoons and large tanks, but is commoner near the
sea than far inland. It breeds from about December to
March, building a large stick nest in high trees. It generally
lays three chalky-white eggs measuring about 3 by 2* 15.

Family Fregatid^.

Genus Fregata.

Frigate Birds.

These are oceanic birds of dark plumage, whose enormously
long pointed wings and slender build give them a power and
speed of flight unsurpassed even by the Albatross. The bill

290

SPOUA ZEYLANICA.

is long and sharply hooked at the tip ; the upper mandible is
flattened ; the nostrils are situated near the base of the bill ;
the nasal grooves are well marked, and run to the nail at the
tip. The chin is naked and pouched, the tarsus very short
and feathered, the web between the toes deeply scalloped and
the tail deeply forked. The birds obtain their food while on
the wing, largely, like the Skuas, by chasing Gulls and other
sea birds and forcing them to drop their catch, but also by
capturing flying fish or by swooping down on such fish,
crustaceans, and yoimg turtles as show themselves on the
surface of the water. The various species range over the
tropical seas and breed on oceanic islands, constructing a stick
nest resting on rocks or in bushes. They lay one or two pure
white eggs. Two species have occurred as stragglers on the
shores of Ceylon.

Key to Ceylon Fregaiidee.

A. — Bill from' gape 4‘5 or over ; ^ving 22 or over.

Fregakt aquilu (Man-of-war Bird).

B. — Bill from gape under 4 ; wing about 20.

Fregata driel (Smaller Frigate Bird) .

Fuegata aquila (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 338 ; Leggc, p. 1204).

Frigate Bird ; Man-of-war Bird.

Description. — Male : black all over ; the head, neck, scapu-
lars, and back glossed with green and purple.

Female : back brownish- bkek ; feathers of lesser and
medium wing coverts lighter brown with a dark shaft stripe
and pale edges ; breast and sides of abdomen white.

Immature birds resemble the female, but have the head,
neck, breast, and middle of the abdomen white ; the flanks
are darkish brown.

Bill bluish-gray ; iris dark brown ; naked skin of throat red ;
legs and feet red.

Length about 40 ; wing 22 to 25 ; tail 15 to 19 ; depth of
fork 10 to 11*5; tarsus *08; bill from gape 4*5 to 5‘o.
Females are rather smaller than males.

DistribtUion. — The British Museum series includes one skni)
that of a moulting bird, from Ceylon. The siiecies ranges
round the seas of the tropics.

CEYLON WATER BjRDS.

291

Fregata ARIEL (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 338).
Fregata minor (Legge, p. 1203).

The Smaller Frigate Bird.

Description. — Similar to that of the last species, but the
bird is smaller, while the male has an irregular white patch on
the flanks, and the female a whitish collar all round the neck.

In young birds the breast is sooty-brown ; the abdomen,
head, and neck white.

Bill gray ; iris red, black in young birds ; naked skin of
throat red ; feet black.

Length about 30 ; wing 20 ; tail 13 ; depth of fork 6 to 7* 5 ;
tarsus -76 ; biU from gape 3 ■75.

Distribution. — not uncommon straggler to our shores ;
generally observed on the west coast. The species ranges
over the tropical parts of the Indian Ocean, and in the Pacific
from the China Seas to New Caledonia .

Family PHALACROCORAcn).E.

Cormora nts a n d Darte rs .

The present family are birds either of medium or fairly
large size and of rather heavy build ; their plumage is wholly
or mainly black, especially on the upper parts. The neck is
loTig ; the bill long and slender ; the tail feathers are stiff and
harsh. The wings are of moderate length ; the birds rise
heavily, but have a powerful flight. They are all voracious
fishers, diving and often swimming for some distance under
water after their prey. After coming out of the water they
have a curious habit of alighting on a low rock or tree stump,
and as it were hanging themselves out to dry wth their
wings half extended. The nest is a platform of twigs, more
or less lined with grass or water weed, and pkeed on low trees
or ledges of rock. The eggs are narrow ovals, with an inner
texture of green and a rough outer layer of chalky-white.

The family is divided into two sub-families, distinguishable
l>y the shape of the bill, as follows : —

A. — Bill hooked at the tip, edges of the mandibles smooth.

Fhalacrocoracinee (Cormorants) .

B. — -Bill straight and pointed, edgt^s of the ma ndiblcs senuted.

Ploiinee (Darters).

292

SPOLIA ZEYLAinCA.

Sub-family PJialacrocoracinse,

Genus Phalacrocorax.

CoTTnorants,

A large genus, containing nearly forty species, distributed
almost all over the world. Three species occur in Ceylon,
As mentioned above, the bill is hooked at the tip. The
nostrils are concealed by the skin at the base of the bill ; the
nasal grooves are long and narrow. There is a naked gular
pouch extending almost to the end of the lower mandible, the
sides of which are joined together only at the tip.

Bough Key to Ceylon Species.

A. — Fourteen feathers in tail ; wing 12 inches or over »

plumage across the throat from eye to eye white.

P. carbo (Large Cormorant).

B. — Twelve feathers in tail.

(а) Wing about 10*5.*

P. fuscicollis (Indian Shag).

(б) Wing about 7 -5.

P.javanicus (the Little Cormorant).

Phalaceocoeax caebo (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 340 ;

Legge,p. 1182).

The Large Cormorant.

Description. — Adults : black glossed with green or purple ;
a white band across the throat from eye to eye adjoining the
naked skin of the face ; a small pointed crest on the head
and nape ; feathers of the upper back and wing coverts dark
brown edged with black ; wing quills bronzed black.

In the breeding season adults assume a patch of white low
down on each flank ; the head and neck are streaked with
long narrow white plumes, which often almost hide the black
plumage underneath.

• Abnormal HpecimenB gometimoe occur with fourteen tail feathers*
but they have no white facial band.

CETLON WATER BIRDS.

293

Immature birds have the top of the head and neck finely
streaked with rather lighter brown ; the middle of the throat,
the breast, and the middle of the abdomen are white, which
becomes increasingly streaked with black until the full adult
plumage is attained. Bill dark on the upper mandible and
on the tip of the lower, remainder pale ; iris green ; naked
skin round the eye dusky yellow, on the throat bright yellow
spotted with black ; legs and feet black.

Length 32 ; wing 12 inches or more ; tail 7 ; tarsus 2‘3 ;
bill from gape 3 '75.

Distribution . — There appears to be some confusion in the
records concerning the occurrence in Ceylon of this species
and the next. Legge does not appear to have obtained
specimens of either, and thought that some large Cormorants
seen by him on Minneri tank were P. carbo, whereas they were
probably P. fuscicoUis. The present species certainly occurs
during the north-east monsoon in the north of the Island,
where it may be met with on lagoons near the coast. It has
not yet been ascertained if it remains all the year round. It
is found on the coast, large rivers, and suitable sheets of water
throughout India and Burma, and breeds in a good many
localities. Its range extends over almost the whole of the
Old World, also Australia and the east coast of North America.

Habits.— The birds often scatter during the day, but roost
and breed in large companies. The nest is placed on trees
growing in the water or on rocks. The eggs may be four to
seven in number, and measure about 2*50 by 1 • 60.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Blaniord, Vol. IV., p. 341 ;

Legge, p. 1182).

The Indian &hag.

Description . — Adults ; black glossed with green or purple ;
the black of the face plumage extends right up to the naked
facial skin, there being no white border. There is no crest.
On the side of the head are a few minute white specks. Out
of the breeding season the throat is more or less speckled with
white ; in breeding plumage the birds assume a minute tuft
of two or three white feathers on each side of the neck behind
the ear.

294

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds are brown above ; the throat, breast, and
abdomen are mostly white, becoming more and more streaked
with brown as age increases.

Bill dark homy -brown, often lighter underneath ; iris greeny-
blue ; naked skin round the eye black, on the throat yellow ;
legs and feet black.

Length 25; wing about 10'5; tail 6*5; tarsus 1-8; bill
from gape 3 '25.

Distribution. — Occurs on Minneri and other large tanks in
the north of the Island.

Four specimens shot by me out of different flocks on Minneri
tank all belonged to this species.

It is also sparingly distributed in the Hambantota District
and probably in the Eastern Province. I have shot the bird
in August, so it would appear to be resident. Elsewhere it
occurs in Sind,. Central India, and the Carnatic, and more
abundantly in Burma.

Habits. — This species occurs in fairly large flocks on some
of the larger inland sheets of water. It is a wary bird, and
seldom comes within range of the shore. As yet no nesting
place appears to have been discovered in Ceylon. In India
the birds breed in colonies on low' trees standing in the water.
The eggs are rather smaller than those of P. carbo, and
measure about 2*1 by 1 *4.

Phalacrocorax javanicus {Blanforcl, Vol. IV., p. 342).

Phalagrocorax pygm^us (Legge, p. 1191).

The Little Cormorant.

Description. — Black slightly glossed with green ; wing
coverts and scapulars dark silver -gray, each feather bordered
with black- Out of the breeding season the throat adjoining
the naked skin is white ; in the breeding season some scattered
white feathers appear on the crown and sides of the head,
with a few white filaments on the sides of the neck.

Bill brown, livid purple in the breeding season ; iris greenish-
brown to greenish -white ; the naked skin of face and throat
and the legs blackish out of the breeding season, livid at
breeding time.

CEYLON WATER BIRJDS. 295

Length 20; wing 7*6; tail 6*50; tarsus 1*3; bill from

gape 2*2.

Distribution. — Common all over the low-country wherever
there are tanks or marshes. Found throughout India and
Burma, the range extending eastward through Malaya to the
Butch East Indies.

Habits . — The birds scatter during the day, but sometimes
on large tanks unite in huge parties which form across the
water and drive the fish before them. They roost and breed
in big colonies on low trees. They breed chiefly during the
rains of the north-east monsoon, but in favourable localities
several broods are reared. The eggs are three to five in
number, and measure about 1 ' 75 by 1 ' 15.

Sub-family Plotinae.

Genus PlotuS.

Darters.

The Darters are a tropical genus, differing from the Cormo-
rants in having a long straight pointed bill with no nasal
grooves. The head and neck are very slender, the latter
being long and with a bend in the vertebra, like the neck of a
Heron. There is no naked pouch under the chin. Only one
species occurs in Ceylon.

Plotus melanogaster {Blanford, Vol. IV. , p. 344 ;

Ijegge, p. 1194).

The Indian Darter, or Snake Bird.

— General colour glossy black ; head and hind-
neck blackish -brown with paler edges to the feathers ; a fine
white streak above the eye ; the feathers of the upper back
with brown edges ; conspicuous silvery w*hite shaft-streaks
on the scapulars, wing coverts, and tertiaries ; the innermost
tertiary and the four central tail feathers have the outer web
corrugated. The face, throat, and upper part of the fore -neck
white, a white stripe extending from tlie bill above the gape
for some way down the side of the neck.

3

6(7)17

296

^POLIA ZEYLANICA.

Immature birds are sooty-brown on the under parts and
lower back ; the white shaft-stripes on the upper plumage are
tinged with yellow ; the neck is pale brown, whitish under-
neath.

Bill brownish on the upper, yellowish on the lower mandible ;
iris yellow ; legs black.

Length 36 ; wing 13*5; tail 10 ; tarsus 1 • 5 ; bill from gape
3-8.

Distribution . — Common on tanks all through the dry zone
of the low-country. Found throughout India, Burma, and
the whole of the Oriental region,

Hahits . — Like the Cormorants, this bird feeds entirely ou
fish. It swims with only the head and neck out of water,
and can travel for a long way under the surface. It is very
wary, and generally keeps well out of range. It breeds h\
colonies in the early part of the year. The nest and eggs
resemble those of Cormorants. The eggs are three or four in
number, and measure about 2 ■ 10 by 1 • 35.

Family SuuOi®.

Genus Sula.

Gannets and Boobies.

The genus contains about six species, comprising the more
active Gannets which are found in the temperate zone and
the more sluggish Boobies which rarUge round the tropics.

The bill is powerful and pointed, curving slightly at the end.
The skin of the face and of the throat adjoining the bill is
naked ; the nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, being
minute even in young birds and completely closed in adult
specimeas. The wings arc long aiid pointed, the tail long and
wedge-shaped.

The Boobies feed mainly on flying fish and wander through-
out the tropical seas, but are chiefly found about reefs and
islands. They breed on isolated rocky islands, laying one
chalky -white egg with an inner texture of green.

Two species have occurred in Ceylon as occasional 3traggl<‘^‘^'

CETLO'N WATER BERDS.

297

Rough Key to Ceylon Syecies.

^Fourteen tail feathers ; wing about 15 ; feet pale yellow.
Sula leuoogaster (the Booby).

B.— Sixteen tail feathers ; wing about 16*5 ; feet slaty.

S. cyaTiops (the Masked Booby).

SuLA LET7COGASTER (Blanford, Vol IV., p. 346).

SuiiA LEUCOGASTRA (Legge, p. 1177).

The Booby, or Brown Gannet.

Description.— Kea,d, neck, all upper parts, and upper breast
chocolate-brown, with a deeper bluish tinge on the wing quills
and tail feathers ; the lower breast and abdomen with the
lower tail coverts white ; wing lining brown with some white.

Immature birds are rather lighter than adults on the upper
plumage, and the lower parts are pale browm with whitish tips
to the feathers.

Bill creamy white ; iris white or very pale ; the pouch and
naked skin of the face is pale, with a blue, green, or yellow tinge.

Length 28 to 32 ; wing 15 ; tail 8 ; tarsus 1*8 ; bill from

gape 4 ' 5.

Distribution.~A straggler to Ceylon during the north-east
monsoon. It has been recorded on several occasions from
Arippu, Colombo, Kalutara, and Galle. Occasionally met
with on the coasts of India and Burma, its ra, nge extending
throughout tropical seas aU round the world.

8ula cyanops (BLanford, Vol. IV,, p. 347 ; Legge, p. 1180).
The Masked Booby.

Description. — Plumage white, except the wiug quills, greater
coverts, and tail feathers, which are blackish- brown.

Immature birds are bro\vn throughouv, with a few paler
feathers on the breast and abdomen ; the wing lining is
mostly white with some brown.

Bill yellow or greenish -yellow ; iris yellow*, reddish, or
greenish-yellow ; pouch and naked skin of face dark slate
colour ; legs and feet slate-gray, the webs darker.

Length 32 ; wing 16*5 ; tail 7*26 ; tarsus 2*2 ; bdl from

298

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution. — There is one specimen in the Colombo
Museum, which came from the coast of the North-Western
Province. The bird has occasionally been obtained off the
west coast of India, and, like the former species, ranges
throughout tropical seas.

Family Phaethonted.®.

Genus Phaethon.

Tropic Birds.

The Tropic Birds are the most graceful members of the
order. In size and appearance they are not unbke the larger
species of Terns.

The plumage is satiny and mamly white ; the young are
barred on the back with black, and in one Indian species the
barring persists in the adult plumage.

The bill is stout, gently curved, and pouited ; the nostrils
are linear, and placed near the base of the bill. The wings
are very long, and the first primary is the longest. The two
middle tail feathers arc produced into long narrow streamers,
greatly exceeding the other tail feathers, which are short.
The birds spend a great part of their time far out at sea, and
breed on oceanic islands, w’here they nest in holes in the
rocks, laying a single egg of reddish-white with bro^vnish-pu^ple
markings. Four or five species are known, ranging over the
tropical ocean. Two are said to have occurred in Ceylon.

Bough Key to Ceylon Species.

A. — Fourteen tail feathers; bill 3*2.5; back barred in

adults, as well as in young birds.

Phaethon indicus (Short -tailed Tropic Bird).

B. — Twelve tail feathers ; bill 2*80 ; back white in adults.

P. fiavirostris (White Tropic Bird) .

Phaethon indicus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 349 ; Legge, p. 1173).

The Short-tailed Tropic Bird.

Description. — Plumage satiny white, barred on the upper
parts from the neck to the tail coverts with black ; the wing
coverts and tertiaries are almost wholly black. There is ^

CEYLON WATER BTRLR.

209

crescent-shaped black patch in front of the eye, and a broken
curved black streak running from behind the eye to the
nape. The first five primary quills are black on the outer
and on half of the inner web ; the remainder of the inner web
and the tip of the quill are white. The flanks are barred
with black. The middle tail feathers or streamers are under
12 inches long, their shafts are black at the base and white at
the tip.

Bill pale orange-red, dusky on the margins ; iris blackish-
brown ; legs and feet yellowish-white, with some black on the
inner toes and their webs.

Length, including streamers, up to 21 ; wing U ‘5 ; tail 7*5
to 12 ; tarsus 1 ; bill 3 '25.

Dislndution. — Rather a doubtful inclusion in our list, but
birds seen by Holdsworth in the Gulf of Mannar probably
belonged to this species. It occurs on the Indian seas, from
the straits of Malacca to the Red Sea.

Phaethon flavirostrts (Blanford, Vol. IV., p, 350 ;

Legge, p. 1172).

The White Tropic Bird,

Description. — Plumage in adults satin white ; a black
crescent-shaped patch in front of the eye and a black stripe
behind the eye to the back of the head. There arc two broad
black bands on the wings : the inner one on the median
coverts and tertiaries, the outer on the fii’st five or six
primaries. The streamers are long and white, with black
shafts which whiten towards the tip. There isa w^ash Of gray-
hiack on the flanks.

Immature birds are barred with black ou the upper plumage.

Hill pale yellow ; iris browm ; legs and base of the toes dull
yellow ; rest of foot black.

Length, including streamers, up to 30 ; tail up to 18 ; wing
10*75; tarsus *9; bill 2*8.

Disirihuiion. — Specimens have been obtained at Cbilaw and
Colombo, others have been seen off the west coast. Occasion-
^illy reported from the Indian coast, and once a bird was
caught 170 miles inland in Cachar, north-east India. The
species ranges all round the tropical seas.

SPOLIA ZEYLAmCA.

m

Order TUBINARES.

Family Procellaeud^.

Petrels.

The Petrels are oceanic birds, which generally live far
from land, resting on the water, and resorting to the shore
merely for breeding purposes. In outward form they are
not unlike Gulls, but differ from them in many charactcris'
ties of their structure. They may be told apart from all
other orders by their nostrils, which terminate externally in
tubes. These tubes may be united or separate, the nostrils
in some species having but a single orifice, in others a double
orifice separated by a septum. The upper mandible of the
biU is deeply grooved, and generally sharply hooked at the
tip. The front toes are well webbed ; the hind toe or hallux
is small, often represented by a mere claw, or sometimes absent.
The wings are long in most forms, and the flight swift and
powerful, the birds generally skimming near the surface of the
waves. They feed on small floating forms of marine life and
on small fish. Many of them follow in the wake of ships and
feed on the refuse thrown overboard.

Several different methods of classification have been adopted
within the order. Blanford, largely for the sake of conven-
ience, seeing that the birds found in Indian seas are limited to
rare stragglers of a few species, has left all the Indian genera
in one family — Proedhriidm.

Three species, each representing a genus, have occurred
within Ceylon limits.

Rough Key to Ceylon Procdlariidae.

A. — Size small ; wing under 7 inches ; nostrils with a single

external orifice.

Oceaniies oceanicus (Wilson’s Stormy Petrel).

B. — Size medium; wing 11 inches; nostril tube with a

double external orifice separated by a broad .septum .

plumage dark brown.

Puffinua chlororhynckua (Green-billed Shearwater)

CEYLON WA'tEE BrRDS.

301

G.— Size medium; -wing 10’25; nostril tube terminating
in a single orifice, but divided within; plumage
black and white,

Daption capmsis (the Cape Petrel).

OcEANlTEs OCEANICTJS (Blauford, Vol. IV,, p. 354 ;
Legge, p. 1056).

WilsoiCs Stormy Petrel.

Description. — Upper parts sooty black ; the forehead and
under parts slightly browner and paler ; the greater wing
coverts gray-brown ; the upper tail coverts and hindmost
part of the flanks white.

Bill black ; iris almost black ; legs and feet black, the
centre of the webs between the toes pale yellow.

Length 7 '5; wing 6 ’25; tail 3; tarsus 1'3; bill from
gape *65.

Distribution, — Legge records the fact tliat a small black
Petrel with white tail coverts had occasionally been seen
round the coast of Ceylon, and that it was probably this species,
which occurs in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans and is not
rare in the seas round India. Recently, in October, 1910,
Mr. W. A. Cave came across some small petrels of a similar
description skimming close to the water in rough weather at
the mouth of Colombo harbour. On several occasions he
came within a few yards of the birds, and identified them with
practical certainty as belonging to the present species.

PuPFiNUS CHLOBORHYNOHUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 356 ;
Legge, p. 1054).

Cfreen-billed Shearwater.

Description. — Dark smoky brown above, paler beneath,
with a grayish tinge, which is most pronounced on the chin
and throat.

Bill dusky greenish ; iris almost black ; legs and feet
fleshy -white.

Length 16; wing 10*76; tail 5; tarsus 1*3; bill from
gape 1*8.

302

SPOLTA zbylanica.

Distribution , — Has been obtained on several occasions
between Panadure and Colombo, and has been seen by Capt.
Legge at Trincomalee. It is found in the Indian Ocean, the
South Pacific, and the seas round Australia and Zealand.

Daption capensis (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 357 ;

Legge, p. 1056).

The Cape Petrel,

Description . — The whole head with the back and sides of
the neck brownish-black ; the remainder of the upper parts
white with a broad black tip to each feather, except on the
primary coverts and lesser wing coverts, which are wholly black.
Most of the outer web of the primary quills and the tip of the
inner web are black, the rest white ; tail white with a broad
black tip. The under plumage is white, mottled on the throat
and lower tail coverts with dusky brown.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet blackish -brown, with
light patches on the side of the toes.

Length 16; wing 10*25; tail 4; tarsus 1*7; bill from
gape 1 ■ 6.

Distribution , — A single specimen was obtained many years
ago in the Gulf of Mannar. The species is abundant in the
southern hemisphere, but rare north of the equator.

Order HERODIONES.

Ibises^ SpoonhillS) Storks, and Herons.

These are all wading birds found about marshes and swamps.
They resemble the Limicolae, or non-perching waders, m
having the neck, bill, and legs long, and the hock or tibia
usually bare for some distance above the joint with the tarsus.
They differ from them widely, however, in many points of
their structure, the most noticeable outward point of distinc-
tion being the hind toe, which in the present order is well
developed and set on the foot in the same plane as the other
toes, thus enabling the birds to perch firmly and to roost in
trees. Again, in the manner of nidification and in the charac-
ter of the nestlings they show more relationship with t e

CEYLON WATER BIRDS.

m

birds of prey and the Steganopodes. The nest is usually a
platform of twigs placed in a tree, the eggs are, with few
exceptions, unspotted, while the young are helpless when
hatched, and require to be fed for some time by the parents

The Indian members of the order faU into three sub-orders
characterized outwardly as follows : '

I.— Bill long, either curved downwards or spoon-shaped.

Platalese (Ibises and Spoonbills).

II —Bill long, stout, with no distinct nasal groove, and
generally straight,

Ciconise (Storks).

generally straight, slender, and pointed ; a distinct
groove running from the nostrils down each side of
the upper mandible ; claw of middle toe furnished
with a comb.

Ardeee (Herons).

Sub-order PLATALEiB.

Ibises and Spoo7ibills,

The Ibises and Spoonbills are closely related, but have been
placed in separate families owing to the great difference in the
beak, the bill curving downwards in the Jbididse or Ibises, and
being straight and spoon-shaped in the Phtaleida> or Spoon-
bills.

Family Ibidida<:.

Ibises.

Ibises are medium-sized birds, with long curving bills and
legs of comparatively moderate length, the bill being consider-
ably longer than the tarsus. The nostrils are placed near the
base of the bill in a groove which extends dowm the side of tho
upper mandible. Their flight is characteristic : the neck is
outstretched, as with the stork, but the wing beats are quicker,
and there are frequent intervals of gliding with the wings held
steady. They are frequently confused with the Curlews, but
may be distinguished at once by their having long hind toes
and perching in trees.

Iwo species, placed in separate genera, are found in Ceylon.

6 ( 7)17

4

304

SPOLTA ZBYLANICA.

Rough Key to Ceylon Ibididm.

A. — Plumage white ; head and neck naked in adults.

Ibis melanocephala {White Ibis).

B. — ^Plumage coloured ; head and neck feathered, except in

front of the eye.

Plegadis falcinellus (Glossy Ibis).

Ibis melanocephala (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 361 ;

Legge, p. 1106).

‘ The White Ibis.

Description. — Plumage white ; the tertiaries slate-gray at
the ends ; the primaries generally mottled with brown at the
tips ; the skin of the head and neck black and naked in adults.
In breeding plumage the tertiaries grow long and soft, and
there are a few plumes on the upper breast.

Young birds have blackish -gray feathers on the head and
neck as far forward as the eyes.

Bill black ; iris red-brown ; legs and feet black ; wing skin
scarlet.

Length 30 ; wing 14 ; tail 5 ; tarsus 4 ; bill from gape 6*5.

Distribution. — Scattered throughout the northern half of
the Island and down the east side as far south as Tangalla.
Occurs throughout India and Burma, and ranges eastward to
(Jhina and South Japan.

Habits . — This species may be found in flocks here and there
round the large tanks or in marshes, feeding on molluscs,
worms, &c.

The birds breed in colonies, mainly during the north-east
monsoon rains, but occasionally later, as I have found young
unable to fly in July. The nests are fairly large platforms of
twigs placed on trees growing in the water. Three eggs are
generally laid ; they arc white elongated ovals, sometimes
delicately spotted with brown, and measuring on an average
2*57 by 1 '65.

^EYLON WATER BIRDS. 305

Pdeoadis falcinellus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 364 ;

Legge, p. 1109).

The Olossij Ibis.

Bescriftim. — Head, wings, and tail deep brown glossed
witli bronze-green and purple ; remainder of upper plumage
dark chestnut ; a patch of bright maroon-red on the scapulars
and smaller wing coverts ; the breast and abdomen lighter
chestnut.

Out of the breeding season the red patch disappears from
the wing coverts and scapulars, and the head and neck
become blackish -brown streaked with white.

Young birds have sooty -black heads and necks, and
brownish-black under parts.

Found about tanks in the low-country,
and by the lagoons of the north and cast coasts. IVLainly
resident and commonest in the north, where the numbers
are probably augmented during the north-east monsoon by
migrants. It occurs throughout the better-watered plains
of India and Burma mostly as a winter visitor. Its range
extends all round the warmer parts of the world.

Generally met with in flocks, but not very com-
mon, and usually very shy. The birds breed in small cehmies
in trees near water, making smallish stick nests. The eggs
are oval, pointed at each end ; the colour is a beautiful blue-
green, and the surface is slightly pitted. Three are usually
laid ; average size 2 by 1 ' 40.

Family Plataleid.e.

Genus Platalea.

SjioonbiU.

Only one species occurs within our hmits ; in form it
resembles the Ibises, but is larger, more slender, and with
longer legs. The bill is long and very fiat, broadening and
curving downwards at the extreme tip, like the wide handle
of a huge spoon. The nostrils are placed near the base of the
bill, and the nasal grooves run close to the edge of the man-
dible right up to the tip ; half of the tibia is naked ; the t oes are
^ong, bordered by membrane, and slightly w^ebbed at the base.

306

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Platalea Leucorodia (Bla Ilford, Vol. IV., p. 366 ;

Legge, p. 1096).

The. Spoonbill.

Description, — Plumage white ; adults have a patch of
cinnamon on the lower neck. In the breeding season a crest
of pointed plumes is assumed. The skin of the face in front
of the eye is naked and yellow ; the skin of the throat is also
naked and yellowish -red.

In young birds the primary quills have black shafts, and
the outermost quills are tipped with black.

Bill in adults black, yellow at the tip ; in young birds
mainly yellow ; iris red ; legs and feet black.

Length 33 ; wing 15 ; tail 5 ; tarsus 6 ; bill from gape 8.

Distribution. — Met with in small flocks on lai^e tanks and
marshes in the wilder parts of the dry zone. Occurs here and
there on the ' well-watered plains of the Indian peninsula,
but unknown in Burma ; ranges from Central Europe to East
Africa and through Central Asia to China.

Habits. — All extremely shy bird. The species is resident,
and breeds about ^larch in sniaM colonies by the water-side.
The nest is a large massive structure of sticks placed in a tree.
The eggs are two to five in number, chalky- white ovals with
a few bro\\ii blotches ; average size about 2 • 5 by 1*8.

Sub-order CIOONIdi.

Family Ciconiid^.

Stories.

The Storks are a familiar and widely-distributed family of
large birds. Many of them are migratory, breeding in teni-
^rate regions and wintering southwards ; others are resident
in the warmer regions of the wwld. The neck is long ; the
bill long, stout, pointed, and generally straight. The nostrils
are placed at the base of the bill, but there is no distinct nasal
groove. The structure of the windpipe i.s peculiar, the voice
muscles being absent, so that the birds are dumb. The legs
are long, the measurements of the tarsus and of the bill from
gape to tip being equal or almost equal ; the lower half of the
tibia is naked. The toe^ are fairly short but broad,

CEYLON WATER BIRDS.

307

furnished with broad short claws. The tail is short ; the
'ivings are long and broad ; the flight is ponderous, but power-
ful, with slow, steady wing beats, the neck and legs being
held outstretched. Storks frequently soar high in the air
wheeling in slow circles with expanded wings. Their food
consists of small fish, frogs, reptiles, molluscs, large insects, or
even mice and such small animals. Six species, distributed
among as many genera, are found in Ceylon. Three of them
are decidedly rare.

Rough Key to Ceylon Ciconiidse.

A. — -Length about 46 inches ; bill straight ; naked skin on

face confined to a ring round the eve.

Ciconia alba (White Stork).

B. — Length about 32 inches ; bill straight ; forehead and

cheeks naked.

Dissura episcopus (White-necked Stork).

C. — Length about 52 inches ; bill slightly curved up at the

end ; head and neck completely feathered.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Black-necked Stork).

Length about 54 inches ; bill straight ; head and neck
almost naked.

Leptopiilus javanicus (Hair-crested Stork).

B. — Length about 40 inches ; bill curved downwards at
the tip ; head and throat naked.

P seudotayUalus lencoceplmhis (Fainted Stork).

— Length about 32 inches ; foreheatl feathered ; face
and throat naked ; bill in adults wath a gap between
the mandibles.

Ayiastomus oscitans (the Opeiibill).

Ciconia alba (Blanford, Vol. Iv"., p. 369 ;

Legge, pp. 1119, 1226a),

The White Stork.

Description. — Plumage white ; the wing quills with the
pnmary and larger secondary coverts black with a slight green

purple gloss ; the secondary quills more or less frosted
with white.

308

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill blood-red ; iris brow ; naked skin round the eye
black ; legs red.

Length about 46 ; wing 24 ; tail 9*5 ; tarsus about 8 ; bill
from gape 8.

Distribution extremely rare migrant ; has been seen
in the south-east of the Island and, contrary to its usual
habits, once found breeding in 1880 in the North-Western
Province. Fairly common during the winter in northern
India, rare in the south, and unknown in Burma. Breeds in
temperate climates from Holland to Central Asia, wintering
all over Africa and in South-western Asia.

Habits. — In its winter quarters this species is generally
met with in flocks in open fields usually away from water.
It feeds on locusts, reptiles, and small animals. The nest
is a large structure of sticks placecl in a tree or on a
building. The eggs are three to five in number, pure white,
and measuring about 3 by 2*15.

Dissura episcoptjs (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 370 ;

Legge, p. 1119).

The, White-necked Stork : Parson Stork.

Descrijdion . — The cro^vii black ; neck, lower abdomen,
and tail white ; remainder of plumage black, glossed with
purple on the upper back and breast, and with bronze-green
on the lower back and upper abdomen.

Bill black, tijigcd with red on the ridge and along the
edges ; iris crimson ; bare skin of the face lead -coloured ; legs
and feet red.

Length 32; wng 18-5, tail 7 5; tarsus 6*5; bill from
gape 6. Ceylon birds appear to be rather smaller than Indian.

Distribution. — Fairly common in the flry zone of the low-
country. It is found almost throughout India and Burma
in the plains, and extends eastwards to Cochin-China and the
Dutch East Indies.

Habits. — In Ceylon this Stork appears to prefer the neigh-
bourhood of abandoned or secluded tanks in the heart of the
jungle.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS.

309

The birds generally nest apart, net in colonies makin. .
large structure of twigs in a taU tree. The nest i.s lined ^th
down or with straw, leaves, and feathers. There are generaUv
four bluish- white eggs, averaging about 2 • 5 by 1 • 83 ^

Xenobhynohus asiaticus (Blanford, Vol. ly., p. 372 •
Legge, p. 1116). ' ’ ”

The Black-necked Stork.

Descriptim.-Ke&d and neck black, the crown glossed with
copper and purple, the remainder with bluish-green ; .soanu-
lara, tertiaries, some of the wing coverts, and tail dark glossv
green ; rest of plumage white. ^

In young birds the upper plumage is brown with a green
gloss on the scapulars and wing quills ; the lower back and
rump are whitish.

Bill black ; naked patch under the bill dusky purple ■ iris
dark brown m males and young birds, bright yellow in
females ; legs coral-red.

Length about ,o2 ; wing 24 ; tail 9 ; tarsus about 12-7o •
bill from gape about 12.

Distrtbutmn.~Oocm% in the wildest parts of the low-countrv
but very rare, though probably resident. It is found in
suitable locahties throughout India and Burma, and extends
south-eastwards to the Malay Archipelago and Australia.

ffa6*te._Pound round wild forest tanks or secluded lagoons,
robably breeds about Christmas time. The nest is°a big
Pfatform of sticks lined with rushes, gmss, or water weed, and

paced a large tree. The four white eggs measure about
^ 91 by 2*12.

Leptoptilits javanicus (Hlanford, V^ol. TV., p. 374 :
Legge, p. 1113).

The Smaller Adjutant, or Hair-crested Stork.

dark h ®P™Wed with grayish down and long haii-s of
black TlT** ' plumage, wings, and tail glossy green-

1 ™ scapulars and tertiaries edged with white ;

cr parts white ; wing linuig black.